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TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

WISCONSIN ACADEMY

OF

SCIENCES, ARTS AND LETTERS

VOL. XLVII

NATURAE SPECIES RATIOQUE

MADISON, WISCONSIN

1958

The publication date of Volume 47 is

March 24, 1959

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

WISCONSIN ACADEMY

OF

SCIENCES, ARTS AND LETTERS

VOL. XLVII

NATURAE SPECIES R ATI OQ U E

MADISON, WISCONSIN

1958

t^>

w '2/2,

OFFICERS OF THE WISCONSIN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

ARTS AND LETTERS

President

Robert J. Dieke, University of Wisconsin, Madison

President-Elect

Henry Meyer, Wisconsin State College, Whitewater

Vice-President (Sciences)

Roy J. Christoph, Carroll College, Waukesha

Vice-President (Arts)

Cyril C. O’Brien, Marquette University, Milwaukee

Vice-President (Letters)

Haskell M. Block, University of Wisconsin , Madison

Secretary-Treasurer

Roger E. Schwenn, University of Wisconsin, Madison

Librarian

Walter E. Scott, 1721 Hickory Drive, Madison

Council

The President Past Presidents :

Paul W. Boutwell

The Vice-Presidents A. W. Schorger

H. A. Schuette

The Secretary-Treasurer L. E. Noland

Otto L. Kowalke

The Librarian W. C. McKern

E. L. Bolender

Katherine G. Nelson

C. L. Fluke

Ralph N. Buckstaff

Joseph G. Baier, Jr.

Stephen F. Darling

Rev. Raymond H. Reis, S. J.

Committees

Publications :

The President, ex officio

The Secretary, ex officio

Stanley D. Beck, Editor,

Transactions

Membership :

Harold A. Goder, Chairman

Berenice Cooper

Otto L. Kowalke

Fred Kaufmann

John F. Vozza

Frederick W. Hainer

The Secretary, ex officii

Representative on the Council of the A.A.A.S.

Stephen F. Darling, Appleton

Chairman, Junior Academy of Science

John W. Thomson, University of Wisconsin

Editor, Wisconsin Academy Review

Walter E. Scott, 1721 Hickory Drive, Madison

Editor, Transactions of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences,

Arts and Letters

Stanley D. Beck, University of Wisconsin, Madison

TABLE OF CONTENTS

SCIENCES

Page

The Isotope Abundance Ratio and the Chemical Atomic Weight of Boron.

John L. Margrave _ 1

Soil Color as an Indication of Nitrogen Content in Some Wisconsin Soils.

W. A. Noel and F. D. Hole _ 11

Standardization of Soil Testing in Wisconsin. H. H. Hull and J. R. Love 17

Wisconsin Tabanidae. Richard H. Roberts and Robert J. Dicke _ 23

Harvestmen and Spiders of Wisconsin; Additional Species and Notes.

Herbert W. Levi, Lorna R. Levi, and John L. Kaspar _ 43

Trap-Nest Survey of Solitary Bees and Wasps in Wisconsin, with Bio¬

logical Notes. T. W. Koerber and John T. Medler _ 53

Preliminary Reports on the Flora of Wisconsin. No. 42. Rosaceae I — Rose

Family I. Harriet Gale Mason and Hugh H. Iltis _ 65

Notes on Wisconsin Parasitic Fungi. XXIV. H. C. Greene _ 99

Notes on Wisconsin Parasitic Fungi. XXV. H. C. Greene _ 119

Notes on Rocky Mountain Rust Fungi. John W. Baxter _ 131

Land Forms of the Baraboo District, Wisconsin. Fredrik T. Th waites 137

Types of Part-Time Farming in Northern Wisconsin. Kerlin M. Seitz _ 161

The History of Rye in Wisconsin from 1850 to 1955. Ross L. Packard _ 173

ARTS AND LETTERS

The Case of Shapira’s Dead Sea (Deuteronomy) Scrolls of 1883.

Menahem Mansoor _ 183

Wholeness of Effect in The Golden Bowl. John J. Enck _ 227

Archbishop Laud and Shirley’s The Cardinal. Charles R. Forker _ 241

A Comparison of Quintus Fixlein and Sartor Resartus. Berenice Cooper. 253

American Criticism of George Meredith’s Novels, 1860-1895. Dorothy Dee

Bailey _ 273

The Transactions welcomes sound original articles in the sciences, arts, and letters.

The author or one co-author of a submitted paper must be a member of the Wiscon¬

sin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. Manuscripts should be double-spaced

throughout, including footnotes, quotations, and bibliographical references. The address

to which galley proofs are to be sent should be typed in the upper left-hand corner

<>f the first page. They should be mailed flat or rolled, never folded. Manuscripts

should be addressed to Stanley D. Beck, 105 King Hall, University of Wisconsin,

Madison 6. Papers received prior to July 31 will be considered for publication in the

Transactions of the current year.

'

THE ISOTOPE ABUNDANCE RATIO AND THE

CHEMICAL ATOMIC WEIGHT OF BORON

John L. Margrave

Department of Chemistry, University of Wisconsin, Madison

The chemical atomic weights of most elements are now known

with high precision from mass spectographic isotope abundance

ratios, X-ray unit cell-density measurements, classical combining

weight studies, gas-density-compressibility studies, optical spectro¬

scopic intensity measurements, nuclear reaction studies and other

techniques. In the recent tabulation of Nier1 boron had the least

accurately known atomic weight of any element. The 1956 chemical

atomic weight chosen was 10.82, a value which has been accepted

without revision since the late 1920’s.2 The uncertainty quoted by

Nier is ±0.01, or one part in 1082. Wapstra3 has given the value

for the chemical atomic weight as 10.822 ± 0.002 on the basis of two

mass spectographic studies.

Since the masses of the two stable isotopes are very exactly meas¬

ured (B10 = 10.016114 and Bu = 11.012789 on the physical atomic

weight scale), the large uncertainty in the atomic weight of the

natural isotopic mixture is directly related either to (1) a real vari¬

ability in the Bu/B10 ratio for naturally occurring boron, or (2) a

real variability of the B^/B10 ratio created during chemical conver¬

sion of boron samples for analysis, or (3) an apparent variability

in the Bu/B10 ratio caused by unsatisfactory experimental tech¬

niques for measuring isotope ratios.

Values for the chemical and physical atomic weights as a func¬

tion of the B^/B10 ratio are listed in Table I. It is apparent that

small variations in the isotope ratio have little significance in the

atomic weight determination if an accuracy of only 0.1% is desired.

Experimental values for the isotope ratio and the chemical atomic

weight are presented in Tables II, III and IV, along with original

references. The wide range of observed values seems to weaken the

suggestion that unsatisfactory techniques per se are the source of

trouble since each of the methods cited has been previously and pre¬

cisely applied in many other cases.

It thus appears that boron isotopes are appreciably fractionated

in chemical and physical processes and consequently that variations

U. O. Nier, Z. Elektrochem. 58, 559 (1954).

2 E. Wichers, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 78, 3235 (1956).

3 A. H. Wapstra, J. Inorg-. Nucl. Chem. 3, 3 29 (1957).

1

9

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

in the ratio are to be expected in laboratory compounds de¬

pending on their recent history, and in natural minerals depending

on their ancient history as well.

Sources of Boron-containing Samples

The major sources of natural boron compounds include: (1) bo¬

rate deposits in dry lakes from saturated solutions; (2) H.BCL and

borax deposits around volcanoes and fumaroles; and (3) sea water.

All these sources probably have similar geochemical backgrounds

in which B203 is formed under oxidizing conditions at high tem¬

peratures, vaporized in the presence of water as gaseous H ;BO . or

HBCL, and deposited on cool ground where it may be redissolved

by rain and carried into lakes and oceans. Borate deposits are

known to exist in California, Tuscany, Germany, Asia Minor, Tibet

and in South America.

Laboratory treatment of borates for determination of isotope

ratios or the atomic weight of boron may involve several steps in

each of which the nearly 10% difference in mass between B11 and

B10 may make appreciable differences in equilibrium and rate con¬

stants through effects on zero point energies, vibrational frequen¬

cies and rotational constants which are reflected in intermolecular

forces.

Mass Spectrographic Values for the B^/B40 Ratio

Because the mass spectrograph is so useful for other isotope

ratio determinations, one is surprised by the wide of values for

R zz Bu/B10 found in Table II. For no other element is a range as

wide as 3.3 to 4.5 observed on routine samples.

A detailed examination of these anomalies has been made by

Melton, et al,4 who conclude that there is an important “memory”

effect for boron compounds from residual gaseous and previous sam¬

ples; by von Ubisch, et al,5 and by Osberghaus'1 who find no sig¬

nificant variations for a large number of natural boron minerals,

except for a 0.2% increase of B^/B10 for sea water; by Palmer,

Dance and Aitken7 who confirm the “memory” effect and suggest

methods for handling samples to avoid it; by Schiuttse,8 who has

made an extensive study of BF,, BCL, B.,03 and Na2B40T for deter¬

ge. E. Melton, L. O. Gilpatrick, R. Baldock and R. M. Healy, Anal. Chem. 28, 1049

(1956).

3 A. Parwel, H. von Ubisch and F. E. Wickman, Geochimica et Cosmochiniica Acta,

10, 185 (1956).

“O. Osberghaus, Z. Physik 128, 366 (1950).

7 G. H. Palmer, D. F. Dance and K. L. Aitken, At. Energy Research Establishment

Report AERE GP/R 1994, June, 1956.

s V. Schiuttse, J. Exp. Theor. Phys. U.S.S.R. 29, 486 ( 1955); translated in Soviet

Physics JETP 2, 402 (1956).

1958]

Margrave — Atomic Weight of Boron

o

TABLE I

The Atomic Weight of Boron as a Function of IL

aIn this tabic, B 1 1 = 1 1 .01 2789 and B 1 0 = 10.0161 14 as given by Li, Whaling, Fowler

and Lauritsen, Phys. Rev. 83, 512 (1951) and the conversion factor for chemical to

physical atomic weights is 1.000274.

TABLE II

Mass Spectrographic Values for the B^/B10 Ratio

(a) F. W. Aston. Proc. Roy. Soc. 132A, 487-98 (1931).

(b) F. W. Aston, "Mass Spectra and Isotopes", Arnold and Co. (London), 1933,

pp. 124-5.

(c) M. G. Inghram, Phys. Rev. 70, 1 19, 653-60 (1946).

(d) H. G. Thode, J. Macnamara, F. P. Lossing, and C. B. Collins, J. Am. Chem.

Soc. 70, 3008-1 1 (1948).

(e) V. H. Dibeler and F. L. Mohler, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 70, 987-9 (1948).

(f) F. J. Norton, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 71, 3488-91 (1949),

(g) O. Osberghaus, Z. Phys. 128, 366-77 (1950).

(h) Callery Chemical Company Mass Spectrographic Laboratory; work done under

the supervision of R. W. Law.

(i) V. Schiuttse, J. Exp. Thcor. Phys. U.S.S.R. 29, 486-9 (1955); translated in

Soviet Physics 2, 402-5 (1956).

(j) 1. Shapiro, Private Communication (1956).

(k i) C. E. Melton, L. O. Gilpatrick, R. Baldock and R. M. Healy, Anal. Chem. 28,

1049-51 (1956).

(kg) G. M. Panchenkov and V. D. Moiseev, Zhur. Fiz. Khim. 30, 1 1 18 (1956).

4 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

mination of R ; and by Panchenkov and Moiseev,9 who have re¬

cently studied BF3. The most interesting work is that of Schiuttse

which indicates that there are systematic variations of R with time

during (1) thermal decomposition of KBF4 and (2) evaporation of

Na2B407 and B203 from a hot filament. These variations are in the

direction which indicates more Bu than B10 containing molecules

I

R

4 5 0

4 .30-

4.10'

3.9 0

3-7 0-

3.50-

3-3 0

THE ISOTOPE RATIO, b'Vb10,

FOR VARIOUS BORON COMPOUNDS

R ‘4.30 t 0 10

EXT.

■v

\

- - - - 1 - ' - 1 - 1 - 1 - 1 - 1 I

123456789 10

NUMBER OF BORON ATOMS PER MOLECULE - >

Fig. 1.

are being vaporized, contrary to the usually expected higher vola¬

tility of the lighter molecules. A similar report suggesting concen¬

tration of B11 in vapors has been given by Green and Martin10 re¬

garding the equilibrium between B10C13 and B11^; by D’Hont and

Lattre11 for thermal decomposition of KBF4 ; and the concentration

of B11 in BF3 etherate complexes has been widely applied.12 Brad-

0 G. M. Panchenkov and V. D. Moiseev, Zhur. Fiz. Khim. 30, 1118 (1956).

lu M. Green and G. R. Martin, Trans. Far. Soc. 48, 416 (1952).

11 M. D’Hont and A. D. Lattre, Nuc. Physics 2, 736 (1956).

13 A. L. Conn and J. E. Wolf, Abstracts of 132nd Meeting, American Chemical Society,

New York, September, 1957, page 25M.

1958]

Margrave — Atomic Weight of Boron

5

ley13 has pointed out that this behavior is not unexpected since in a

mixture of light and heavy molecules (1) the greater entropy (be¬

cause of mass) favors vaporization of the heavy molecules but (2)

the stronger intermolecular forces between the heavy species tend

to make their heat of vaporization higher.

Values of R have been deduced from peak heights at masses 10,

11, 12, 13 and 14 on mass spectrographic patterns of boron com¬

pounds available from routine analyses done in the Mass Spectro¬

graphic Laboratory of the Callery Chemical Company. An appear¬

ance potential study on heavy boron hydrides with 5 and 10 boron

atoms per molecule also supports the low values of R for molecules

with high boron content as indicated in Table II.14 There appears

to be a trend in R which is in the direction predicted for an isotope

separation process which depends inversely on mass, with lighter

molecules being concentrated in the vapor. Preferential reaction

rates for B10-containing molecules might also contribute to this

separation.

The correlation of observed R with the number of borons in the

molecule is shown in Figure I, and an extrapolation to zero boron

content, which should eliminate isotope fractionation and separa¬

tion effects, indicates R = 4.30 ± 0.10.

Chemical Values for the Isotope Ratio

Chemical determinations of R involve a very accurate determina¬

tion of the average molecular weight of a boron compound pre¬

pared in a series of reactions one of which includes some element

whose atomic weight has already been very well established. For

example, one could prepare high purity BC13, hydrolyze it and react

the product HC1 with standard AgNOs. The final R in such a deter¬

mination is usually obtained with the assumptions that no appre¬

ciable isotope separation occurs during the various reactions and

that differences in reaction rates are not significant. Of course, a

100% conversion in each step of the determination assures the

absence of isotope fractionation effects. Careful weighings, high

purity materials and meticulous laboratory techniques are required.

Equally careful and reputable scientists have reported atomic

weights for boron from 10.8055 to 10.896 by chemical means, as

indicated in Table III. An R value between 3.5 and 6.0 is implied.

It would appear that high precision values for R are not likely to

be established by the chemical method.

!»D. C. Bradley, Nature 173, 260 (1954).

14 J. L. Margrave, Unpublished Work, 1956.

6

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

TABLE 1 1 f

Chemical Values for the Atomic Weight of Boron

(l) J. Hoskyns-Abrahall, J. Chem. Soc. 61, 650 (1892).

(m) E. Rimbach, Ber. 26, 164 (1893).

(n) Gautier, Ann. chim. phys. 18, 352 (1899).

(o) E. F. Smith and W. K. Van Hagen, Carnegie Inst. Pub. 267, 1-63 (1918).

(p) G. P. Baxter and A. F. Scott, Science 54, 524 — 5 (1921); Proc. Am. Acad. Arts

Sci. 59, 21-48 (1923).

(q) O. Honigschmid and L. Birckenbach, Ber. 56B, 1467 (1923).

(r) A. Stock and E. Kuss, Ber. 56, 314 (1923).

(s) H. V. A. Briscoe, P. L. Robinson and G. E. Stephenson, J. Chem. Soc. 127,

150-62 (1925).

(t) H. V. A. Briscoe and P. L. Robinson, J. Chem. Soc. 127, 696-720 (1925).

Neutron Absorption Values for the Isotope Ratio

Since the isotopes of boron show greatly different cross-sections

for neutron capture (a- = 4020 barns for B10 and <r < 0.05 barns for

B11), one may analyze isotopic mixtures by neutron absorption tech¬

niques for B10 content. Typical procedures are outlined by Green

and Martin10, by DeFord and Braman15 and by Hamlen and Ivoski.10

The reaction used is

5B10 + on1 = ,He4 + 3Li7

and one may either count the a’s produced or measure the attenua¬

tion of the neutron beam.

15 R. S. Braman, Ph.D. Thesis, Northwestern University ( 1956) ; DeFord and Braman,

Callery Chemical Company Report No. CCC— 1024-TR— 243, May 17, 1957.

w R. P. Hamlen and W. S. Koski, Mathieson Chemical Company Report No. MCC—

1023-TR— 117 (1956).

1958]

Margrave — Atomic Weight of Boron

7

In all cases, it is customary to use a natural boron compound as a

standard and a defined R to establish a scale for the Bu/B10 ratio.

Ideally, one would like to have a sample of 100% B10 for calibra¬

tion purposes. In its absence, one must have some other source of

data to put the neutron absorption method on an absolute basis.

For relative B10 concentrations, however, the neutron absorption

method is ideal.

Variations up to 1% are often observed in the B10 concentration

in “normal” laboratory compounds. These are probably indicative

of the isotope concentration or rate effects mentioned previously.

The technique has not been applied to as wide a variety of com¬

pounds as the mass spectrographic method, but in no case has the

value of R been below 4.0.

A comprehensive calibration of the method with “standard”

boron compounds of various isotopic compositions is now being

made for intercomparison with mass spectrographic and other

isotope abundance data.17

Values for R from Optical Spectroscopy

The Bu/B10 ratio may be evaluated from intensity measurements

on molecular or atomic spectral features. It is fundamental to as¬

sume for the particular transition that the transition probability

does not depend on the particular isotope concerned. If this is true,

then one may compare either photographically or photometrically

the intensities of corresponding features of the BxlO and B10O

visible spectra, of BAH,,, B210H(i and B^B10!!,, infrared spectra, etc.

Calculation of R from relative intensities of molecular spectra and

vice versa will be discussed by Margrave and Polansky.18 Literature

values for B^/B10 ratios by optical spectroscopy are presented in

Table IV. New studies on boron compounds of various isotopic com¬

position are now in progress.19

Values of the Isotope Ratio from X-ray and

Density Measurements

If one knows the density of a solid crystal, the number of mole¬

cules in the unit cell and the lattice constants, he can compute the

formula weight of the substance. If more than one element is

present but all the atomic weights are known except one, the data

can yield extremely accurate atomic weights. This procedure has

been applied for many elements.20

17 K. S. Braman, Unpublished Work, Gallery Chemical Company, 1 0 r» 7 .

1S J. L. Margrave and R. B. Polansky, to be published.

111 W. Meyer and J. L. Margrave, University of Wisconsin, 1057.

20 T. Batuecas, J. chim. phys. 54, 195 (1957).

8

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

TABLE IV

Values for the Bu/B10 Ratio from Optical Spectroscopy

(u) A. Elliott, Nature 12b, 845-b (1930); Z. Phvs. b7, 75-88 (1931).

(v) R. F. Paton and G. M. Almy, Phys. Rev. 37, 1710 (1931).

(w) L. S. Ornstein and J. A. Vreeswijk, Z. Phys. 80, 57 (1933).

There are, however, fundamental sources of error which are diffi¬

cult to eliminate: (1) lattice defects are often present which lead

to apparent variations in atomic weights even under otherwise

optimum conditions; (2) densities are hard to measure with great

precision because of cracks, voids, etc., in crystals or chemically-

bound impurities like water; and (3) Avogadro’s Number is not

known with particularly great accuracy.

A variety of boron compounds have been considered for calcula¬

tion of the atomic weight of boron : H3B03, HB02, decaborane, WB,

MoB, CeBt;, MgB,, and pure elementary boron. The apparent atomic

weights range from 9.5 to 10.83 ± 0.02. This latter result was

obtained from data on CeBr, and is quite likely correct since all the

expected errors tend to make the apparent atomic weight low, not

high.

Values of R from Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Studies

In nuclear magnetic resonance studies of boron compounds, inde¬

pendent signals are obtained for the B11 and B10 nuclei. If the transi¬

tion probabilities for the transitions are the same or can be calcu¬

lated, one can make a direct and absolute measurement of the

isotope ratio. Alternatively, one can make an absolute determina¬

tion of the isotope abundances in two measurements on two sam¬

ples with different B11/10 ratios.

Assume sample I contains concentrations x1 and yx of B10 and B11

while sample II has concentrations x, and y2 of B10 and B11. Then, let

a = x1/x2 = ratio of B10 concentrations in samples I and II

b =: y,/y2 = ratio of B11 concentrations in samples I and II.

Also, let

xl + y1 = c = total boron present in sample I

x2 + y2 = d = total boron present in sample II.

1958]

Margrave — Atomic Weight of Boron

9

Now, the quantities c and d may be determined by direct chemical

analysis for total boron ; a and b are determined from the ratios of

the peak heights on the n-m-r trace, or a can be determined inde¬

pendently from neutron absorption studies. Thus, on solving for the

unknowns xlf y„ x2 and y2 :

b(c — ad)

b — a

(c — bd) (c — ad)

x> = a-b = b-a '

a(c — bd)

a — b

Conclusions

The Bx1/B10 ratio in a given sample may vary from 3.3 to 4.5

depending on the chemical history of the material. From mass spec-

trographic traces and an extrapolation to minimize isotope fraction¬

ation effects, the normal ratio, B11/B10, appears to be 4.30 ± 0.10.

This implies a chemical atomic weight of 10.822 ± 0.004. Conflict¬

ing data do not enable one to decide absolutely if the isotope ratio

varies widely in natural boron-containing minerals. Some of the

observed variation probably results from isotope fractionation

effects in chemical preparation and handling.

Further refinement of the atomic weight seems possible by a de¬

tailed comparison of the neutron absorption, nuclear magnetic reso¬

nance, optical and mass spectrographic data for various natural

and synthetic boron compounds. Another approach was suggested

by Dr. W. G. Berl of the Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Labora¬

tory in 1955. The idea is to react a weighed B^-B10 mixture in a

nuclear pile with neutrons until all the B10 is converted to Li. One

may then analyze for Li by normal quantitative methods, and also

correct for the small amount of C12 formed by the B11. Tests of this

type are presently underway by the author and Mr. Wilfred Meyer,

with the Argonne National Laboratory Pile as the neutron source.

Acknowledgement

This work was in part supported by the Callery Chemical Com¬

pany under a contract from the Bureau of Aeronautics, Department

of the Navy.

SOIL COLOR AS AN INDICATION OF NITROGEN CONTENT

IN SOME WISCONSIN SOILS1

W. A. Noel and F. D. Hole2

Soils Department , University of Wisconsin, Madison

Professor A. R. Whitson reported thirty-one years ago (13) that

dark prairie soils of Wisconsin were originally higher in content of

organic matter, total nitrogen and phosphorus than lighter colored

timbered soils. This paper reports a statistical study of the rela¬

tionship between soil color and nitrogen content of some samples

of Wisconsin soil profiles, including a number of Whitson’s original

soil samples.

Soil color has been reported to depend on many factors, includ¬

ing moisture, organic matter, iron, manganese, and elemental car¬

bon (12). Gillam (2) found that the ratio between relative black

pigment and humus contents of soil varied geographically from

great soil group to great soil group. Wilde (14) recorded as high

as 0.262 per cent of nitrogen in light colored surface horizons of

Planosols in Indiana. Smirnoff (11) noted that soils of Morocco,

which contained light colored organic matter, darkened in propor¬

tion to the content of organic matter, after being moistened with

concentrated sulphuric acid. Jenny (5) reported that in grassland

soils of the Great Plains of North America nitrogen content in¬

creases from south to north with decreasing annual temperature,

and from west to east with increasing precipitation.

Brown and O’Neal (1) found that the relation of color designa¬

tions, made by experienced soil scientists, to organic matter con¬

tent was not clear. Their work was done before the development of

modern soil color nomenclature and standards (3, 4, 6, 9, 10), of

which the Munsell color system and notation (8) are now standard

in the U.S.A. The Munsell Soil Color Charts were used in this

investigation.

The Munsell system of color notations is based on three attri¬

butes : value, chroma and hue. The value notation indicates the

relative darkness or gray scale, in which 0 represents black and

10, white. The chroma notation indicates the amount of color added

1 Contribution from the Soils Department, and the Soil Survey Division, Wis. Geo¬

logical and Nat. Hist. Survey, University of Wisconsin, Madison. Published wth the

permission of the Director of the Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station. This

work was supported in part by the Research Committee of the Graduate School with

funds from the Wisconsin Alumni Research Foundation.

2 Research Assistant in Soils, and Associate Professor of Soils, in charge of the Soil

Survey Division, Wis. Geological and Nat. Hist. Survey, respectively.

11

12 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

to this gray scale, 0 representing no color added and 20, the maxi¬

mum. The two scales are arranged on the ordinate and abscissa,

respectively, meeting at a common point of origin, the black chip.

The third attribute is hue, which is the particular color added. The

color chips are arranged in equal visual steps.

In this study, a color factor of value times chroma is used, a

factor which increases as the color of the soil becomes lighter

(higher in value) or has more chroma.

Procedure. The senior author made a statistical study of data on

nitrogen contents of surface soil and subsoil samples collected and

analyzed by A. R. Whitson, the senior author (7) and others in the

Soils Department at the University of Wisconsin at Madison. Mun-

sell color notations were determined in each instance from original

soil samples.

Before color determinations were made, the air-dry soil samples

were put through a 30-mesh sieve. The wet color was taken at a

moisture content just below that at which a free water film is pres¬

ent. The wet sample was placed in a small plastic container and

compared to a Munsell soil color chart under a 3-tube daylight

fluorescent fixture. The color was estimated to the nearest one-half

interval for both value and chroma and to the nearest hue chart.

I.B.M. cards were punched and multiple correlations run3 to com¬

pare the following categories of soil data: nitrogen content (Kjel-

dahl), horizon designation, great soil group, color designation, tex¬

ture of sample, and textural class of the soil type. The last two were

the same in the case of the A horizon. The data were put in a num¬

ber of different mathematical forms to discover linear relationships

between soil nitrogen content and the other categories listed. These

multiple correlations indicated that the factors most closely related

to content of nitrogen in soil are: (a) the color index expressed

as value times chroma, and (b) the textural class of the soil. The

fact that color value times chroma is more significant than color

value in this correlation suggests that organic matter contributes

not only value to soil color, but also enough chroma to produce in¬

dices as high as 35. It was found that a few samples were too dark

or too red to display the nitrogen-color relationships normal to the

majority of the samples. The study was, therefore, confined to sim¬

ple correlations of soil nitrogen content with the two factors named

above for 174 samples of 10YR Hue and with a color index of more

than 5.0 for soil samples of medium textural classes (Group II:

loams, silt loams, silty clay loams, clay loams, and sandy clay

loams), and more than 3.75 for soil samples of sandy textural

classes (Group I: sands, loamy sands, and sandy loams). In the

3 Correlations were run at the Numerical Analysis laboratory, University of Wis¬

consin at Madison,

1958]

Noel & Hole — Soil Colo r

lo

simple correlations of color index with nitrogen, the data were

obtained separately for each of the two textural groups. It is

thought that differences in the meanings of textural designations

used by Whitson and his coworkers, and by present-day soil scien¬

tists are small, and fall well within the two broad textural groups.

35 30 25 20 15 10 5

COLOR INDEX (VALUE X CHROMA)

Figure 1. Curves for two textural groups of soil samples, showing the rela¬

tionship between nitrogen contents determined by the Kjeldahl method, and

nitrogen contents estimated on the basis of color (Value X Chroma). The

dashed lines are simply extensions of the data curves. Darker soil colors (lower

in value) lie to the right in the figure.

Results. Correlation coefficients (r) of nitrogen to color index

(V X C) were obtained as follows: For textural Group I (17 sam¬

ples), r = —0.516, (significant values for 15 degrees of freedom

were 5% 0.482, 1% 0.606). For textural Group II (157 samples),

r = —0.851, (significant values for 155 degrees of freedom were

14

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

^kjeldahl nitrogen

Figure 2. The distribution of the soil samples on the basis of Kjeldahl nitro¬

gen content and nitrogen content calculated by means of color indices.

kjeldahl nitrogen - calculated nitrogen content

0 .01 .02 .03 .04 .05 .06 • °7 *08 .09 .10

absolute error

kjeldohl nitrogen

■ sandy samples

□ medium textured samples

Figure 3. Error (discrepancy) in determining nitrogen by soil color, as com¬

pared with Kjeldahl nitrogen determinations.

1958]

Noel & Hole — Soil Color

15

5% 0.157, 1% 0.205). Correlation coefficients range from 0 (no cor¬

relation) to 1 (perfect correlation). A negative correlation means

that as one factor increases, the other decreases.

The regression equations obtained were as follows: For

textural Group I: %N = antilog (9.280-10 — . 025VC) =

antilog (1.280 — .025VC)

100

where VC =: value times chroma. For

textural Group II: %N = antilog (8.925-10 — .01VC) =

antilog (0.925 — .01VC) u + . ,

- - - - -, where VC = value times chroma.

Figure 1 shows graphically the relationships expressed in the

regressive equations. The curve for medium textured soils (Group

II) is steeper and therefore less sensitive with respect to color than

the curve for sandy soils (Group I) .

Figure 2 shows the distribution of the samples with respect to

content of nitrogen as determined by the Kjeldahl method, and to

content of nitrogen as calculated on the basis of color (V X C) . The

departure of points from the bisector is a measure of the discrep¬

ancies between the chemical determinations and color estimates of

nitrogen contents. Points representing nitrogen contents in hori¬

zons of an undisturbed profile of a Gray-Brown Podzolic soil at

Madison (7) follow the bisector closely, despite the presence of a

light-colored A2 horizon. The average absolute discrepancy or error

was .014% N and the medium absolute error was .010% N (see

Figure 3) .

Summary

This study defines in statistical terms the correlation found be¬

tween soil color and soil nitrogen content in some Wisconsin min¬

eral soils. Excluded from the study were surface horizons of prairie

(Brunizem) and marsh (Humic-Gley) soils which were so dark

that increases in nitrogen content were not accompanied by visu¬

ally detectable increases in black pigment content. The relationship

between soil color and nitrogen content is found to be modified by

texture of the soil. It is evident that there are still other factors

yet to be investigated. For example, it is possible that light colored

forms of organic matter, reported from areas outside Wisconsin,

occur in small amounts in soils within the state. Further refine¬

ments of procedure for determining soil color are still needed.

Literature Cited

1. Brown, P. E. and O’Neal, A. M., The color of soils in relation to organic

matter content. Iowa Agr Exp Sta Res Bui. 75:275 300, 1923.

2. GlLLAM, W. S., The geographical distribution of soil black pigment Jour.

Am. Soc. Agron, Vol 31, pp 371-387, 1939

16 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

3. Hutton, J. G., Report of the Committee on soil color standards. Am. Ass.

of Soil Survey Workers, Bui. 3:1-10, 1922.

4. Hutton, J. G., Report of the Committee on soil color standards. Am. Ass.

of Soil Survey Workers, Bui. 4, Vol. 2:89-90, 1923.

5. Jenny, H., Factors of soil formation. McGraw-Hill, 1941.

6. Munsell Color Co., Inc., Munsell soil color charts, Baltimore, Md., 1954.

7. Noel, W. A., Carbon and nitrogen relationships in two profiles of the Parr

and Miami soil families. M.S. thesis, U. of Wis., 1955.

8. Pendelton, R. L. and Nickerson, D., Soil colors and special Munsell soil

color charts. Soil Science, Vol. 71:35-43, 1951.

9. Rice, J. D., Nickerson, D., O’Neal, A. M., and Thorp, J., Preliminary

color standards and color names for soils. U.S.D.A. Misc. Pub. 425, 1941.

10. Shaw, C. F., An improved method of measuring soil color. Soil Sci., Vol.

33:183-185, 1932.

11. Smirnoff, W., Methode colorscopique depreciation de la teneur en

matieres organiques d’un sol par emploi de l’acide sulphurique concentre.

Societe des Sciences Naturelles du Maroc, Travaux de la Section de

Pedologie, Tomes 2 & 3:100-105, 1950.

12. U.S.D.A., Soil Survey Manual. Agr. Handbook No. 18, 1951.

13. Whitson, A. R., Soils of Wisconsin. Bui. 68, Soil Series No. 49, Wis. Geo¬

logical and Nat. Hist. Survey, 1927.

14. Wilde, S. A., Crypto-mull humus; its properties and growth effects. Soil

Sci. Soc. Am. Proc., Vol. 15:360-362, 1950.

STANDARDIZATION OF SOIL TESTING IN WISCONSIN1

H. H. Hull and J. R. Love2

ABSTRACT

The study reported here was undertaken for the purpose of com¬

paring the results obtained in various soil testing laboratories in

Wisconsin. Two standard soil samples were mailed to all County

Agent and Commercial Soil Testing Laboratories and to 117 Voca¬

tional Agriculture Instructors. Each Cooperator was asked to

analyze the two soil samples in triplicate for pH, available phos¬

phorus, and available potassium.

The results reported by the Vocational Agriculture group showed

the greatest amount of variation while those obtained by the State

Soil Testing Laboratory varied the least. Comparable results were

reported by the County Agent and Commercial Soil Testing Labora¬

tories. For the most part the values obtained by these two groups

averaged higher than those reported by the State Soil Testing-

Laboratory.

Purpose of the Study

Many of us who are concerned with soil testing have for a long

time felt the need for a study in Wisconsin that would show how

the results obtained at one laboratory compare with those of other

laboratories testing the same soil. Such a study would serve two

important functions. First, it would give assurance to those labora¬

tories where agreement with the standard exists that the job of

soil testing is being accurately performed. Second, it may help to

narrow down the source (s) of error in those cases where the re¬

sults are not in agreement.

Experimental Procedure

Two standard soil samples were used in this study. They were

prepared in the following manner: each soil was air-dried, sieved

through a 20 mesh screen, thoroughly mixed, and quartered into

samples weighing approximately 20 grams. Each sample was placed

in a numbered packet and sealed. Samples marked number one were

Parr silt loam and those labeled number two were Spencer silt loam.

1 Contribution from the Soils Department, University of Wisconsin, Madison. Pub¬

lished with the approval of the Director, Wisconsin Agr. Exp. Sta.

2 Assistant Professors of Soils.

17

18 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

The two standard soil samples were mailed to all County Agents

testing soil, to all Commercial Laboratories known to be testing-

soil, and to 117 Vocational Agricultural Instructors. Each coop¬

erator was asked to analyze the two soil samples for pH, available

phosphorus, and available potassium and to indicate on his report

the soil testing procedure (e.g., Hellige-Truog, LaMotte, Sudbury,

Urbana, etc.) used in his laboratory. For purposes of this study

only the results obtained with the Hellige-Truog procedure are

compared. In addition all cooperating laboratories were asked to

run the analyses in triplicate and to make a separate extraction for

each replicate. The reason for the latter request, as was explained,

is that in case an error is made in one extraction it will not affect

the results of all of the tests. It should be emphasized in this regard

that the two standard soil samples analyzed in the State Soil Test¬

ing Laboratory were replicated six times, and that on each occasion

the two soils were included in a tray of regular soil samples so that

at no time was their identity known to the analyst.

A set of directions on care of glassware and reagents and the

procedure for testing glassware and reagents for contamination

were sent to each cooperator with the recommendation that he check

the cleanliness of his glassware and purity of reagents before be¬

ginning the testing of the standard soil samples.

Results and Discussion

In order to give each cooperator an opportunity to compare his

results with those obtained in laboratories similar to his, the aver¬

ages of the various tests for each of the four groups (County

Agents, Commercial, Vo-Ag, and State) were calculated. It is im¬

portant to note, however, that averages in themselves tell very little,

unless some measurement of variation is also given. To illustrate

this, consider the fact that 40 is the average of 10, 40, and 70 as

well as the average of 39, 40, and 41. Now suppose these values rep¬

resent the pounds of available phosphorus per acre as determined

in triplicate by two laboratories testing the same soil sample. In

both instances the average would be the same, but in the first lab¬

oratory the individual values range from a very low to a high read¬

ing. Since soil tests are not replicated in actual practice, the chances

of the analyst in the first laboratory obtaining an accurate value

for this test are no better than one in three. This would also mean

that whoever is making the fertilizer recommendations based on

these results is under-recommending or over-recommending phos¬

phate fertilizer two-thirds of the time. Such practices would under¬

mine the farmer’s faith in soil testing. In the second laboratory,

however, all of the values are so close to the average that it would

make no difference which one was used in calculating the phosphate

1958]

Hull & Love — Soil Testing

19

needs of the soil, and the operator could feel fairly certain that his

recommendations were based on accurate readings.

Thus, to give some idea of the amount of variation in the results

obtained bv each group, the average deviation was calculated for

pH, available phosphorus, and available potassium and these to¬

gether with the mean values are given in the following table. An

important characteristic to keep in mind with respect to average

deviation values is the fact that the spread includes approximately

two-thirds of all of the samples. Furthermore, if the variation is

small, a large share of the remaining one-third will not lie very far

outside this range. However, the converse of this statement is also

true, and unfortunately when a lime or fertilizer recommendation

happens to be based on widely inaccurate soil test results and the

crop for which the recommendation was made fails, the losses in

time, money, or labor cannot be made up to a farmer.

TABLE I

Summary of Analyses for Two Standard Soil Samples as Reported

by Cooperating Laboratories

These data show that similar results for all tests were obtained

in the County Agent and Commercial Soil Testing Laboratories.

It will also be noted that the amount of variation associated

with the average of the values reported by these two groups is

greater for all tests than that obtained by the State Soil Testing-

Laboratory. This is especially evident in the potassium determina¬

tion where the variation reported by the County Agent and Com¬

mercial Groups is 73 and 59 pounds per acre available potassium

for soils 1 and 2, respectively. In the case of the State Soil Testing-

Laboratory, the amount of variation for the same test does not

exceed 22 pounds of available potassium per acre in either soil. The

differences in variation with regard to the pH and phosphorus tests

is less serious, since much (about two-thirds) of the variation in the

values obtained by these three groups lies within experimental

error. However, the variation noted in the remaining one-third of

the samples tested for pH and available phosphorus in the County

20 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

Agent and Commercial laboratories is serious and points out the

need for further study. In addition it will be noted that the values

reported by the Commercial and County Agent Laboratories have a

tendency to be higher than those obtained by the State Soil Testing

Laboratory. One possible explanation for this is contaminated glass¬

ware and/or reagents.

In view of the wide variation in the results obtained in the aver¬

age Vo-Ag laboratory, it should be emphasized that soil testing in

these laboratories is not done on a commercial basis, although Wig-

gelsworth1 found that over two-thirds of the Vo-Ag. Instructors

interviewed in a recent study indicated that they provided a soil

testing service for farmers in their community. On the basis of the

results reported in the above table, it would seem that this practice

should be discouraged wherever possible. While it is true that

accurate results should still be the goal even where soil testing is

used as a teaching device, greater variation in tests from these lab¬

oratories is to be expected since the equipment is sometimes anti¬

quated, the reagents old, and the job of analyzing performed by in¬

experienced students. Also, in spite of the fact that the average

variation reported by the Vo-Ag group was considerably greater for

all tests than that reported by any of the other cooperating groups,

it should not be inferred that all Vo-Ag laboratories do a poor job

of soil testing. On the contrary, the report from several high schools

ranked near the top.

It is also important to note that in addition to the 23 Vo-Ag lab¬

oratories whose data were included in the summary table, 13 other

Vo-Ag Instructors cooperated in this study. Unfortunately their re¬

sults could not be compared with the rest since they used different

resting procedures. Since all County Agent and Commercial Soil

Testing Laboratories and the majority of Vo-Ag Instructors use the

Hellige-Truog procedure, it is hoped that any high school contem¬

plating a change in soil testing equipment will adopt the Hellige-

Truog method. This procedure has served as the basis for all lime

and fertilizer recommendations released by the College of Agricul¬

ture, Madison, as well as the basis of all benefit payments for lime

and fertilizer made by the Agricultural Conservation Program

(ACP) in Wisconsin. The Soils Department of the University is

continually working to develop better testing methods and to im¬

prove its recommendations by laboratory, greenhouse, and field

correlation studies.

i Wiggelsworth, Richard, “Values of Testing- Soil Samples in the High School Voca¬

tional Agricuture Department.” Senior Seminar, Dept. Agric. Ed., Univ. of Wis. (1957).

1958]

Hull & Love — Soil Testing

21

Summary

The results of this study show that the measurements of pH,

available phosphorus, and available potassium can be duplicated

quite closely in the State Soil Testing Laboratory and in the major¬

ity of Commercial and County Soil Testing Laboratories. In ap¬

proximately one-third of the samples tested by the Commercial and

County Laboratories, however, serious variations in results were

obtained. While it may be argued in most cases that the analyst

knew that he was testing standard soil samples, and therefore, that

the percentage of errors made are conservatively estimated, it does

not necessarily follow that the analyst would use other than the

same good technique on “run of the mill” soil samples.

I To insure that equally good results are maintained, it is suggested

that each soil testing laboratory obtain a supply of several standard

soil samples (these can be obtained from the State Soil Testing Lab¬

oratory) and that the analyst makes it a policy to include one or

more of these soils in each tray of regular soil samples. In this way

a general check on analytical technique is easily obtained in every¬

day operations (a check on reagents and glassware by blank tests

should also be made periodically) . It should be emphasized in this

connection that a soil test is only as good as the soil sample on

which it was run. Therefore, as a means of promoting better soil

sampling, it is hoped that everyone connected with soil testing will

encourage farmers to use the recently prepared special circular en¬

titled “Sampling Soils For Testing,” available through all County

Agent offices or by writing to the Soils Department, College of

Agriculture, Madison.

|

pn^HI

WISCONSIN TABANIDAE1

Richard H. Roberts2 and Robert J. Dicke

University of Wisconsin, Madison

Relatively little in the way of intense collecting of Tabanidae has

been previously accomplished in Wisconsin. Specimens in the Pub¬

lic Museum of Milwaukee and in the collection of Professor W. S.

Marshall were reported by Graenicher in 1912. Additional records

of specimens collected over the years from the state have been re¬

ported by Brennan (1935), Stone (1938) and Philip (1947, 1950).

Graenicher reported 14 species of Chrysops, one species of Pan-

gonia ( = Stonemyia) and 17 species of Tabanus. All the species

reported except for four were collected in Wisconsin during this

investigation. The specimens Graenicher used in reporting these

four species could not be located in the Milwaukee Museum collec¬

tion. One of these species was found in the Marshall collection. This

was the one he reported as Tabanus flavipes Wiedemann ( = aeque-

tincta Becker) . However an examination of the specimen revealed

that it was Hybomitra zonalis (Kirby). This confirms Fairchild’s

(1934) statement that he doubted Graenicher’s report of its exist¬

ence in Wisconsin. The other three species, unrecognized as occur¬

ring in the state, are Tabanus carolinensis Macquart, Tabanus mexi-

canus Linnaeus and Chrysops obsolete Wiedemann.

Graenicher reported five males of T. carolinensis Macquart from

Washington county. In the Milwaukee collection labeled as carro-

linensis, two males of Hybomitra trispila (Wiedemann) from Wash¬

ington county were found. The other males in the collection were

carolinensis but had been taken in Ohio.

The T. mexicanus L. which he reported from Buffalo county

brings up a rather interesting point. Graenicher identified this spe¬

cies from the keys published by Osten Sacken (1876) and Hine

(1907) and compared it favorably to identified specimens then in

the Milwaukee collection. Ivnab in 1916 showed that the nearctic

form identified as mexicanus L. was quite different from the neo¬

tropical form and renamed it flavus. Since that name was preoccu¬

pied, Bequaert in 1926 renamed it crepuscularis. (Stone, 1938) This

species, now in the genus Chlorotabanus, is common in the costal

1 Approved for publication by the Director of the Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment

Station. Supported in part by the Research Committee of the Graduate School with

funds from the Wisconsin Alumni Research Foundation.

2 The research on which this paper is based is from a dissertation presented by the

senior author in partial fulfillment of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the Uni¬

versity of Wisconsin. Now with IT. S. Department of Agriculture, Kerrvilo, Texas.

24 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

states from New Jersey southward and in the states bordering the

Gulf of Mexico west to Texas. As stated above the specimen was not

located, nor have any since been reported from that section of the

state or by Philip (1931) from the adjacent regions in Minnesota.

It is doubtful that this species is a native of Wisconsin. Where the

specimen Graenicher saw came from is a matter for conjecture.

Since it was taken at Fountain City on the Mississippi River there

is a possibility that it was carried up the river on board a ship.

The fourth unrecognized species is Chrysops obsoleta Wiede¬

mann. This species is found along the Atlantic Coast. The species

name was misapplied for years until Krober erected wiedemanni in

1926. (Brennan, 1935) These two species are quite similar except

for the hyaline first basal cell of wiedemanni. It is very probable

that this is the species Graenicher had before him when he reported

obsoleta.

Brennan (1935), Stone (1938) and especially Philip (1947,

1950) list the states from which each species has been reported.

Although many new state records were established in this study,

there are some species reported from Wisconsin by these authors

which have not as yet been seen or collected in this investigation.

Stone lists six species from Wisconsin: Dicladocera scita Walker,

Tabanus actaeon Osten Sacken, Tabanus fulvicallus Philip, Tabanus

longiglossus Philip, Aty lotus pemeticus (Johnson) and Tabanus

aequetincta Becker. Philip lists Chrysops furcata Walker, Hama-

tabanus scita (Walker), Tabanus actaeon Osten Sacken and Hybo-

mitra aequetincta (Becker). Brennan did not report any species in

addition to those taken in this study.

The classification in this paper is based on that proposed by

Philip in his 1947 catalog which separated the Pangoniinae from the

Tabaninae on the basis of the presence or absence of the hind tibial

spurs.

The Pangoniinae are represented in Wisconsin by the genera

Chrysops and Stonemyia and the Tabaninae by Tabanus, Hybomitra

and Aty lotus. The tabanid fauna of Wisconsin is at present com¬

posed of 64 species and four subspecies distributed as follows :

Tabanus, 15 species, 1 subspecies; Atylotus, 3 species; Hybomitra,

20 species, 1 subspecies; Chrysops, 24 species, 2 subspecies; Stone¬

myia, 2 species. In addition to this record there is a possibility that

the two genera Silvius and Chrysozona, each with one species, eight

species of Tabanus, two species of Hybomitra and one species of

Chrysops may occur in the state. This is based on records from

Illinois, Iowa, Minnesota and the Upper Peninsula of Michigan.

There are 28 tabanids being reported from Wisconsin for the

first time. These are as follows : Chrysops aestuans abaestuans,

C. cuclux, C. frigida xanthus, C. geminata, C. nigra, C. pikei,

1958]

Roberts & Dicke — Wisconsin Tabanidae

25

C. sequax, C. shermani ; Tabanus calens, T. catenatus , T. lineola

lineola, T. nigripes , T. quinquevittatus, T. sparus, T. vivax ; Hybo-

mitra astuta, H. criddlei , H. frontalis frontalis, H. frontalis septen-

trionalis, H. hinei, H. itasca, H. liorhina, H. metabola, H. micro-

cephala, H. nuda, H. sonomensis, H. typha ; Atylotus ohioensis.

The following is a check list of the species found in Wisconsin.

Names preceded by an asterisk are those which have not been re¬

corded from the state. These species are found in the neighboring-

states and it is quite possible that they also occur in Wisconsin.

Keys to the imago will follow the check list, but since all the species

listed have been amply described elsewhere, the descriptions will be

omitted.

Tabanidae

Pangoniinae Loew

Pangoniini Enderlein

Stonemyia Brennan

rasa (Loew)

tranquilla (Osten Sacken)

Chrysopini Enderlein

Chrysops Meigen

aberrans Philip

aestuans van der Wulp

aestuans abaestuans Philip

*brunnea Hine

callida Osten Sacken

carbonaria Walker

celeris Osten sacken

cuclux Whitney

excitans Walker

frigida Osten Sacken

frigida xanthas Philip

geminata Wiedemann

inda Osten Sacken

mitis Osten Sacken

moecha Osten Sacken

montana Osten Sacken

nigra Macquart

pikei Whitney

pudica Osten Sacken

sackeni Hine

sequax Williston

shermani Hine

striata Osten Sacken

univittata Macquart

26 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Ards and Letters [Vol. 47

venus Philip

vittata Wiedemann

wiedemanni Krober

*Silvius Meigen

* quadrivittatus ( Say )

Tabaninae Loew

Chrysozonini Philip

*Chrysozona Meigen

*americana (Osten Sacken)

Tabanini Enderlein

Aty lotus Osten Sacken

tricolor Wiedemann

ohioensis (Hine)

thoracicus (Hine)

Hybomitra Enderlein

affinis (Kirby)

astuta (Osten Sacken)

cincta ( F abricius)

criddlei (Brooks)

epistates (Osten Sacken)

frontalis ( W alker )

frontalis septentrionalis (Loew)

gracilipalpus ( H ine )

hinei (Johnson)

illot a (Osten Sacken)

itasca (Philip)

lasiophthalma ( Macquart)

liorhina (Philip)

metabola (McDunnough)

microcephala (Osten Sacken)

minus cula (Hine)

nuda (McDunnough)

*rhombica (Osten Sacken)

sonomensis (Osten Sacken)

trepida ( McDunnough )

trispila (Wiedemann)

typha (Whitney)

zonalis (Kirby)

Tabanus Linneaus

*actaeon Osten Sacken

atratus F abricius

calens Linnaeus

eaten at us Walker

fairchildi Stone

1958]

Roberts & Dicke — Wisconsin Tabanidae

* gladiator Stone

kesseli Philip

lineola Fabricius

lineola scutellaris Walker

*melanocerus Wiedemann

*molestus Stone

!,! nigrescens Palisot de Beauvois

ni gripes Wiedemann

nivosus Osten Sacken

*pumilus Macquart

quinquevittatus Wiedemann

reinward Hi W iedemann

*sagax Osten Sacken

spams Whitney

stygius Say

sulcifrons Macquart

trimaculatus Palisot de Beauvois

*venustus Osten Sacken

vivax Osten Sacken

Keys to the Imago

Key to the Genera

1. Hind tibiae with two apical spurs similar to those on the

middle tibiae (Pangoniinae) _ 2

Hind tibiae without apical spurs (Tabaninae) _ 4

2. Flagellum twice the combined length of the scape and pedicel

- Stonemyia

Flagellum equal to or only slightly longer, never twice the

combined length of the scape and pedicel _ 3

3. Scape more than twice the length of the pedicel _ *Silvius

Scape and pedicel subequal in length _ Chrysops

4. Frontal callus absent _ Atylotus

Frontal callus present _ 5

5. Width between eyes considerably more than the distance

from the antennae to the vertex _ _ *Chrysozona

Height at least several times the width _ 6

6. Vertex with a distinct ocellar tubercle _ Hybomitra

Vertex without an ocellar tubercle _ Tabanus

Keys to the species

Key to the species of Stonemyia Brennan

1. Pedicel and scape black,

femora black _ tranquilla (Osten Sacken)

Pedicel and scape reddish-orange,

femora orange-brown _ rasa (Loew)

28 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

Key to the species of Aty lotus Osten Sacken

1. Vestiture of thorax yellow _ bicolor (Wiedemann)

Vestiture of thorax gray _ 2

2. Pile of abdomen white _ ohioensis (Hine)

Pile of abdomen yellow _ thoracicus (Hine)

Key to the species of Chrysops Meigen

1. Apex of the wing, distal to the crossband, hyaline _ 2

Apex of wing infuscated at least along costal margin _ 7

2. Dorsum of abdomen with yellow laterally on first two

segments _ 3

Dorsum of abdomen black in these areas _ 4

3. Pleurae of thorax yellow pilose, median yellow triangle pres¬

ent on at least the second tergite of the abdomen

_ excitans Walker

Pleurae grayish pilose, no median triangles; yellow on ab¬

domen limited to dorsolateral areas of segments one and two

_ cuclux Whitney

4. Second basal cell hyaline _ nigra Macquart

At least half of second basal cell infuscated _ 5

5. Lateral margins of mesonotum and dorsal portion of the

pleurae anterior to wing base orange pilose

_ celeris Osten Sacken

These portions gray pilose _ 6

6. Wing crossband not reaching posterior edge of wing but fad¬

ing out before edge leaving a hyaline area next to the hind

margin of the wing; cell Ci^ infuscated basally

_ mitis Osten Sacken

Crossband reaching edge of wing, sometimes faintly, but

there is not a hyaline area along the edge; cell Cu, with a

hyaline lunule at base _ carbonaria Walker

7. Scape and pedicel swollen, dorsum of abdomen reddish brown

with little or no indication of a pattern _ *brunnae Hine

Abdomen distinctly patterned in black and yellow or orange,

scape and pedicel with very little if any swelling _ 8

8. Abdominal dorsum with longitudinal stripes, with a median

yellow stripe that is continuous over at least three segments 9

Abdominal dorsum transversely banded, median yellow tri¬

angles not continuous to form a median stripe over three or

more segments _ 17

9. Hyaline triangle small, confined to

cells and M2 _ moecha Osten Sacken

Hyaline triangle not limited by vein _ 10

1958] Roberts & Dicke — Wisconsin Tabanidae 29

10. Wing infuscation diluted by hyaline areas

next to the veins _ shermani Hine

Wing infuscation even, if diluted, it is in the centers of the

cells _ 11

11. Dorsum of abdomen with four more or less complete longi¬

tudinal stripes _ 12

Two longitudinal stripes at most _ 22

12. Apex of hyaline triangle extending well past furcation _ 13

Apex of hyaline triangle just enveloping furcation _ 15

13. First basal cell completely infuscated _ 14

First basal cell not completely infuscated, at least half is

hyaline _ montana Osten Sacken

14. Lateral abdominal stripes not present on first and second

tergites _ pikei Whitney

Lateral stripes extending onto first tergite _ sequax Williston

15. Scutellum completely yellow _ vittata Wiedemann

Scutellum dark, at least on the disc _ 16

16. Frontal callus completely black, facial calli with a black spot

on both sides of suture _ _ striata Osten Sacken

Frontal callus with yellow on at least the disc, black spots on

facial calli limited to median side of suture _ aberrans Philip

17. Apical spot of wing but little wider than cell Rt, reaching at

most into the extreme tip of cell R4 _ 18

Apical spot broad, at least half of cell R4 infuscated _ 20

18. Median femora yellow or orange except for a small black

area at extreme base ; frontal callus yellow to black with yel¬

low disc _ sackeni Hine

Medain femora black on basal third or more; frontal callus

black _ 19

19. Second abdominal tergite with a small black triangle on each

side of median figure _ aestuans van der Wulp

Second abdominal tergite without sublateral triangles

although median figure may have lateral extensions along

the posterior border _ callida Osten Sacken

20. Frontoclypeus completely black except for the median yel¬

low pollinose stripe _ 21

Frontoclypeus yellow, with black shadings over facial calli

and above oral margin - frigida xanthus Philip

21. Dorsolateral edges of thorax with a broad bright orange

pilose stripe, yellow pollinosity of pleurae with a rich orange

pilosity ; legs black except for apex of median tibiae

- 1 _ venus Philip

Legs with reddish-orange ground color; yellow pollinosity of

pleurae with concolorous pile _ frigida Osten Sacken

30 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

22. Apex of hyaline triangle extending towards the costal mar¬

gin and crossing vein R2+3 _ 24

Apex reaching but little way past furcation _ 23

23. Cell Cux hyaline in the center; yellow median stripe of ab¬

domen extends anteriorly onto the first tergite

_ univittata Macquart

Center of cell Ciq infuscated; yellow median stripe ends an¬

teriorly in center of second tergite _ inda Osten Sacken

24. Second tergite with submedian black lines reaching the full

length of the tergite _ wiedemanni Krober

Second tergite with submedian black lines very short, not

touching either edge _ geminata Wiedemann

Key to the species of Tabanus Linneaus

1. Abdomen above with a continuous median stripe which may

widen at the posterior edge of each tergite _ 2

Abdomen above without a continuous stripe; median tri¬

angles, if present, do not form a parallel sided stripe _ 5

2. Abdominal stripes regularly widening at the posterior mar¬

gin of each tergite; abdomen yellowish brown outside of the

median stripe; eyes with three diagonal bands

- *sagax Osten Sacken

Median stripes not widening perceptibly at posterior mar¬

gins ; eyes with one or two bands _ 3

3. Second palpal segment yellowish brown, vestiture of body,

especially thorax, yellow; eye with one band

_ quinquevittatus Osten Sacken

Second palpal segment whitish ; vestiture gray ; eye with two

bands _ 4

4. Scutellum completely dark _ lineola Fabricius

Scutellum with a reddish brown to

reddish tip _ lineola scutellaris Walker

5. Abdominal dorsum with both median and sublateral pale

spots _ 6

Dorsum does not have both, although median triangles may

expand laterally along posterior margins _ 12

6. Furcation distinctly infuscated _ 7

Furcation without a distinct spot _ 8

7. Hind tibial fringe white ; infuscation confined

to crossveins _ reinwardtii Wiedemann

Hind tibial fringe black; wing with large infuscated areas

not confined to crossveins _ *venustus Osten Sacken

1958]

Roberts & Dicke — Wisconsin Tabanidae

O

1

8. Sublateral abdominal spots very much larger than the me¬

dian triangles which are not longer than one-fourth the

length of the tergite _ nivosus Osten Sacken

Median triangles extend nearly the length of the tergite, sub¬

lateral areas not much larger _ 9

9. Abdomen brownish above _ 11

Abdomen black above _ 10

10. Pedicel height twice that of scape _ fairchildi Stone

Pedicel and scape subequal in height _ spams Whitney

11. Vestiture of mesonotum gray; third antennal

segment black _ vivax Osten Sacken

Vestiture reddish-brown ; third antennal segment orange ex¬

cept for darker annulate portion _ *pumilus Macquart

12. Dorsum of abdomen with conspicuous median triangles _ 13

Abdomen unicolorous or evanescent triangles present me¬

dially _ 18

13. Fore tibiae distinctly bicolored _ 14

Fore tibiae unicolorous, at most, vestiture is pale _ 16

14. Second abdominal tergite without a median triangle or a

small white triangle is present that is smaller than that of

the third tergite, or second tergite has a pair of small white

submedian areas; venter of abdomen white with a median

brown stripe _ trimaculatus Palisot de Beauvois

Triangle of second tergite as large or larger than those of

following tergites _ 15

15. Second palpal segment dark brown _ sulcifrons Macquart

Second palpal segment white to

yellowish-white _ *melanoceras Wiedemann

16. Dorsal triangles of abdomen large, continued along posterior

edge of tergites to expand laterally into rather large white

areas _ *niolestus Say

Triangles not produced along posterior edge _ 17

17. Third antennal segment with a prominent dorsal excision;

antennae mainly reddish; second palpal segment dark

reddish-brown _ catenatus Walker

Antennae with little excision, black except for a small red¬

dish spot at extreme base of third segment; second palpal

segment whitish _ nigripes Wiedemann

18. Entirely black bodied; wings infuscated _ atratus Fabricius

Body not entirely black; wings with hyaline or faded areas 19

19. Antennae entirely orange; second palpal segment brownish-

orange _ calens Linnaeus

Antennae black, reddish-brown basally or palpi dark brown

to black _ 20

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

32

20. Dorsum of thorax white pollinose _ 22

White pollinosity not present _ 21

21. Crossveins and furcation distinctly

infuscated _ *nigrescens Palisot de Beauvois

Spotting not obvious, faint; if a spot is at furcation, it does

not extend into cell R5 _ 23

22. Palpi black, not slender; hind tibiae dark reddish-brown to

black _ stygius Say

Palpi reddish-brown, very slender, apex truncated ; hind

tibiae reddish-orange _ * gladiator Stone

23. Palpi black; femora black _ kesseli Philip

Palpi reddish-orange ; femora

orange-brown _ *actaeon Osten Sacken

Key to the species of Hybomitra Enderlein

1. Dorsum of abdomen with first three tergites and first four

stern ites orange, rest of the segments black _ 2

Color not so restricted, not orange _ 3

2. Third antennal segment orange except for the black annuli ;

palpi black with black pile ; no median black marking on

third tergite _ _ *cinctus (Fabricius)

Base of third antennal segment with black; palpi brown with

black pile; third tergite with a median black mark

- criddlei (Brooks)

3.

Posterior margin of each black abdominal tergite with a

golden transverse band _ zonalis (Kirby)

Not so _ 4

4. Abdominal tergites black with a single median row of white

triangles ; venter with a median black stripe and lateral white

stripes _ trispila (Wiedemann)

Sublateral pale spots present on abdomen not black _ 5

5. Face shiny black, no pollen ; a cloud in stigma region of wing;

very slender, dark palpi _ hinei (Johnson

Disagreeing with at least one character _ 6

6. Subcallus denuded _ 7

Subcallus pollinose _ 11

7. Frontal callus rugose _ 8

Frontal callus smooth _ 9

8. Abdomen broadly reddish-brown, color reaching anterior

edge of first tergite ; the median black stripe extends over at

least the first five tergites and has a concave border, nar¬

rowest on tergite three _ nuda (McDunnough)

Reddish-brown, if present, restricted to the posterior edge of

tergite one; black stripe on third tergite about one-third

width of abdomen _ metabola (McDunnough)

1958]

Roberts & Dicke — Wisconsin Tabanidae

9. Abdomen broadly reddish-brown, wing crossveins and furca¬

tion heavily infuscated ; third antennal segment with black

annuli and orange base _ lasiophthalma (Macquart)

Base of third antennal segment with considerable black;

wing crossveins not darkly spotted ; reddish-brown areas

confined to each tergite, not joined to cover lateral areas of

tergites _ 10

10. Prealar callus concolorous with

mesonotum _ *rhombicus (Osten Sacken)

Prealar callus not concolorous _ liorhina (Philip)

11. Median black stripe of abdomen with concave borders, nar¬

rowest on third tergite where the reddish-brown of the sides

of the abdomen may join in a rather narrow band along the

posterior edge _ 12

Median black stripe with parallel borders, or abdomen black

or brown and white, or black of median stripe is produced

along posterior margin of each tergite giving a serrated pic¬

ture, or abdominal pattern indistinct due to grayish-yellow

pollen over ground pattern _ 15

12. Palpi whitish to yellowish-white, swollen basally; height of

frons about five times width of a rugose frontal callus

_ epistates (Osten Sacken)

Palpi yellowish-brown, frontal callus smooth _ 13

13. Third antennal segment either with a prominent dorsal angle

but with scarcely any excision or no angle _ 14

Third antennal segment with a prominent dorsal angle and a

deep excision _ affinis (Kirby)

14. Palpi unusually slender; prominent

dorsal angle _ trepida (McDunnough)

Palpi swollen basally; dorsal angle

very low _ sonomensis (Osten Sacken)

15. Second palpal segment whitish _ 16

Second palpal segment not whitish _ 18

16. Furcation infuscation _ illota (Osten Sacken)

No infuscation present _ 17

17. Abdomen with median and sublateral pale spots on a black

background, very little, if any orange-brown around them

- ' _ frontalis septentrionalis (Loew)

Sublateral pale spots evanescent, on an orange-brown back¬

ground on tergite two ; antealar calli reddish-brown

_ sonomensis (Osten Sacken)

18. Antealar calli black

Not black _

19

21

34 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

19. Abdomen broadly orange-brown laterally, median black

stripe with parallel sides _ gracilipalpis (Hine)

Orange-brown, if present, is confined to individual tergites 20

20. Ocellar tubercle reduced, located in a denuded black area

one-third width of frons ; second palpal segment with black

pile at tip _ microcephala (Osten Sacken)

Ocellar tubercle distinct, not located in a denuded region ;

second palpal segment with black pile fairly evenly dis¬

tributed _ astuta (Osten Sacken)

21. Femora reddish-brown to orange _ 22

Femora black _ 23

22. Hind tibial fringe black _ minuscula (Hine)

Hind tibial fringe mostly white _ itasca (Philip)

23. Second palpal segment brownish, very slender, scarcely at

all swollen basally ; third antennal segment with a prominent

angle and excision _ typha (Whitney)

Second palpal segment swollen basally, pale yellowish ; third

antennal segment with hardly any angle and little if any

excision _ frontalis (Walker)

Distribution

Chrysops Meigen

1. aberrans Philip, 1941, Proc. ent. Soc. Wash., 43:122

Burnett, Dane, Door, Florence, Grant, Kenosha, Marinette,

Outagamie, Polk, Price, Richland, Rusk, Sauk, Vilas, Wash¬

burn, Waukesha and Wood counties. June 28 to September 5

Specimens examined : 477 females, 1 male.

2. aestuans van der Wulp, 1867, Tijdschr. Ent. 10:135

C. moerans Graenicher, 1912, Bull. Wis. nat. Hist. Soc. 10:172

Bayfield, Brown, Burnett, Dane, Milwaukee, Outagamie, Rusk,

Walworth, Washburn and Waukesha counties. June 1 to

August 25

Specimens examined: 13 females, 1 male.

2a. subsp. abaestuans Philip, 1941, Proc. ent. Soc. Wash. 43:121

Dane county

Specimens examined : 1 male.

3. callida Osten Sacken, 1875, Mem. Boston Soc. nat. Hist. 2:379

C. callidus Graenicher, 1912, Bull. Wis. nat. Hist. Soc. 10:171

Burnett, Dane, Douglas, Grant, Milwaukee, Richland, Rusk, St.

Croix, Vernon and Walworth counties. June 1 to August 13

Specimens examined : 61 females, 7 males.

1958]

Roberts & Dicke — Wisconsin Tabanidae

35

4. carbonaria Walker, 1848, List, Dipt. Brit. Mus. Part I, p. 203

C. carbonarius Graenicher, 1912, Bull. Wis. nat. Hist. Soc.

10:171

Burnett, Dane, Florence, Langlade, Oneida, Rusk, Sawyer, Ver¬

non, Vilas, Washburn and Waukesha counties. May 22 to

August 19

Specimens examined : 137 females.

5. ceteris Osten Sacken, 1875, Mem. Boston Soc. nat. Hist. 2:376

C. celer Graenicher, 1912, Bull. Wis. nat. Hist. Soc. 10:172

Bayfield, Burnett, Dane, Florence, Iron, Milwaukee, Rusk,

Vilas, Washburn and Waukesha counties. June 3 to July 19

Specimens examined : 24 females, 1 male.

6. cuclux Whitney, 1879, Canad. Ent. 11 :36

Bayfield, Crawford, Price, Rusk and Sawyer counties. June 2

to July 8

Specimens examined : 20 females.

7. excitans Walker, 1850, Dipt. Saund. 1 :72

C. excitans Graenicher, 1912, Bull. Wis. nat. Hist. Soc. 10:171

Ashland, Bayfield, Burnett, Door, Douglas, Florence, Marinette,

Price, Rusk, Sawyer, Vilas, Washburn, Waupaca and Wood

counties. June 18 to July 28

Specimens examined : 409 females.

8. frigida Osten Sacken, 1875, Mem. Boston Soc. nat. Hist. 2 :384

C. f rigidus Graenicher, 1912, Bull. Wis. nat. Hist. Soc. 10:172

Bayfield, Burnett, Columbia, Dane, Door, Douglas, Florence,

Forest, Langlade, Marinette, Milwaukee, Oneida, Price, Rusk,

Sawyer, Shawano, Vilas, Washburn and Washington counties.

June 10 to August 10

Specimens examined : 378 females, 47 males.

8a. subsp. xanthas Philip, 1949, Ann. ent. Soc. Amer. 42 :453

Langlade, Rusk, Sawyer and Washburn counties. June 17 to

July 4

Specimens examined : 4 females.

9. geminata Wiedemann, 1828, Auss. zweifl. Ins. 1 :205

Wood county. August 20

Specimens examined : 3 females.

10. inda Osten Sacken, 1875, Mem. Boston Soc. nat. Hist. 2:383

C. Indus Graenicher, 1912, Bull. Wis. nat. Hist. Soc. 10:172

Bayfield, Burnett, Dane, Door, Douglas, Florence, Forest, Ke¬

nosha, Marinette, Milwaukee, Ozaukee, Price, Richland, Rusk,

Sawyer, Vilas, Walworth, Washburn, Washington, Waukesha,

Waupaca and Wood counties. May 6 to August 20

Specimens examined : 548 females.

36 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

11. mitis Osten Sacken, 1875, Mem. Boston Soc. nat. Hist. 2:374

C. mitis Graenicher, 1912, Bull. Wis. nat. Hist. Soc. 10:172

Dane, Door, Douglas, Florence, Iron, Manitowoc, Oneida, Price,

Rusk, Sawyer, Vilas, Washburn, Waukesha, Waupaca and

Wood counties. May 13 to August 3

Specimens examined : 284 females, 2 males.

12. moecha Osten Sacken, 1875, Mem. Boston Soc. nat. Hist. 2:315

Florence, Grant, Iowa, Langlade, Rusk, Vernon and Washburn

counties. June 26 to August 6

Specimens examined : 35 females, 13 males.

13. montana Osten Sacken, 1875, Mem. Boston Soc. nat. Hist. 2 :382

Douglas, Florence, Kenosha, Milwaukee, Oconto, Price, Rusk,

Vilas, Walworth, Washburn, Washington, Waukesha and Wau¬

paca counties. June 23 to August 18

Specimens examined : 73 females.

14. nigra Macquart, 1838, Dipt. exot. nouv. peu connus I, 1 : 161

C. niger Graenicher, 1812, Bull. Wis. nat. Hist. Soc. 10:172

Ashland, Crawford, Dane, Door, Douglas, Florence, Lafayette,

Langlade, Milwaukee, Outagamie, Price, Richland, Rusk, Saw¬

yer, Vernon, Vilas, Walworth, Washburn and Waukesha coun¬

ties. May 19 to July 8

Specimens examined : 124 females, 1 male.

15. pikei Whitney, 1904, Canad. Ent. 36 :205

Dane, Iowa, Jefferson, Kenosha and Richland counties. June 27

to July 14

Specimens examined : 14 females, 1 male.

16. pudica Osten Sacken, 1875, Mem. Boston Soc. nat. Hist. 2:381

Walworth county, July 27

Specimens examined : 1 female.

17. sackeni Hine, 1903, Spec. pap. Ohio Acad. Sci. #o, p. 42

C. sackeni Graenicher, 1912, Bull. Wis. nat. Hist. Soc. 10:173

Adams, Dane, Door, Florence, Manitowoc, Marinette, Mar¬

quette, Rusk, Sawyer, Walworth, Washburn, Waukesha and

Wood counties. May 5 to August 20

Specimens examined : 236 females, 5 males.

18. sequax Williston, 1887, Trans. Ivans. Acad. Sci. 10:133

Washburn county, July 27

Specimens examined : 1 female.

19. shermani Hine, 1907, Ohio. Nat. 8 :229

Bayfield, Dane, Florence, Langlade, Marinette, Oneida, Price,

Rusk and Wood counties. June 22 to August 20

Specimens examined : 108 females.

1958]

Roberts & Dicke — Wisconsin Tabanidae

37

20. striata Osten Sacken, 1875, Mem. Boston Soc. nat. Hist. 2:391

C. striatus Graenicher, 1912, Bull. Wis. nat. Hist. Soc. 10:173

Adams, Burnett, Crawford, Dane, Door, Douglas, Florence,

Forest, Manitowoc, Marinette, Marquette, Oneida, Outagamie,

Price, Richland, Rusk, Sawyer, Vilas, Walworth, Washburn,

Washington, Waukesha, Waupaca and Wood counties. May 30

to August 24

Specimens examined : 1047 females, 2 males.

21. univittata Macquart, 1855, Dipt. exot. nouv. peu connus, Sup. V,

p. 36

C. univittatus Graenicher, 1912, Bull. Wis. nat. Hist. Soc.

10:173

Adams, Burnett, Jefferson, Marinette, Rusk, Sawyer, Wau¬

shara and Wood counties. June 28 to August 15

Specimens examined: 16 females.

22. venus Philip, 1949, Ann. ent. Soc. Amer. 42 :457

Bayfield, Florence and Rusk counties. July 1 to July 10

Specimens examined: 11 females.

23. vittata Wiedemann, 1821, Dip. exot. nouv. peu connus I, p. 106

C. vittatus Graenicher, 1912, Bull. Wis. nat. Hist. Soc. 10:173

Adams, Bayfield, Buffalo, Burnett, Columbia, Crawford, Dane,

Door, Douglas, Florence, Fond du Lac, Forest, Grant, Mara¬

thon, Marinette, Marquette, Milwaukee, Oneida, Polk, Price,

Racine, Richland, Rusk, Sauk, Sawyer, Sheboygan, Vernon,

Vilas, Walworth, Washburn, Washington, Waukesha, Waupaca,

Waushara and Wood counties. June 18 to September 1

Specimens examined : 576 females, 2 males.

24. wiedemanni Krober, 1926, Stettin ent. Ztg. 87 :267

Adams, Bayfield, Burnett, Columbia, Dane, Door, Douglas,

Florence, Grant, Marinette, Milwaukee, Richland, Rusk, Wash¬

burn and Wood counties. June 21 to August 24

Specimens examined : 118 females, 1 male.

Stonemyia Brennan

1. rasa (Loew), 1869, Dipt. Amer. Sept. Ind. II, p. 119 (Pan-

gonia)

Pangonia rasa Graenicher, 1912, Bull. Wis. nat, Hist. Soc.

10:173

Dane, Door, Fond du Lac, Kenosha and Washburn counties.

June 26 to August 14

Specimens examined : 5 females, 2 males.

2. tranquilla (Osten Sacken), 1875, Mem. Boston Soc. nat. Hist.

2:367 (Pangonia)

Rusk and Vilas counties. August 3 to August 14

Specimens examined : 3 females.

38 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

Tabanus Linnaeus

1. atratus Fabricius. 1775, Ent. Syst. p. 79

T. atratus Graenicher, 1912, Bull. Wis. nat. Hist. Soc. 10:174

Chippewa, Columbia, Dane, Kenosha, Milwaukee, Pierce, Ra¬

cine, Shawano, Vernon, Washburn and Winnebago counties.

June 20 to September 1

Specimens examined : 13 females, 3 males.

2. calens Linnaeus, 1767, Systema Naturae, ed. 12, 1 :1000

T. giganteus Graenicher, 1912, Bull. Wis. nat. Hist. Soc. 10:174

Adams and Sauk counties. August 20 to August 24

Specimens examined : 3 females.

3. catenatus Walker, 1848, List Dipt. Brit. Mus. I, p. 148

Bayfield, Rusk and Wood counties. July 16 to July 27

Specimens examined : 4 females.

4. fairchildi Stone, 1938, Misc. Publ., U. S. Dept. Agric. No. 305,

p. 63

Burnett, Douglas and Rusk counties. July 22 to August 1

Specimens examined : 3 females.

5. kesseli Philip, 1950, Ann. ent. Soc. America 43 :117

Door county. June 25

Specimens examined : 1 female.

6. lineola Fabricius, 1794, Ent. Syst. 4 :369

T. lineola Graenicher, 1912, Bull. Wis. nat. Hist. Soc. 10:174

Dane, Door, Rusk and Waukesha counties. June 28 to July 29

Specimens examined : 10 females.

6a. subsp. scutellaris Walker, 1850, Ins. Saund. Dipt. 1 :27

Bayfield, Columbia, Dane, Door, Grant, Jefferson, La Crosse,

Outagamie, Racine, Rusk, Vernon, Washburn, Waukesha,

Winnebago and Wood counties. May 19 to July 28

Specimens examined : 1248 females, 11 males.

7. nigripes Wiedemann, 1821, Dipt. exot. nouv. peu eonnus 1 :75

Oconto and Vilas counties. May 30 to July 18

Specimens examined : 2 females.

8. nivosus Osten Sacken, 1876, Mem. Boston Soc. nat. Hist. 2:445

T. nivosus Graenicher, 1912, Bull. Wis. nat. Hist. Soc. 10:175

Bayfield, Burnett, Dane, Douglas, Florence, Marinette, Rusk,

Sawyer and Vilas counties. June 12 to August 5

Specimens examined : 26 females, 1 male.

9. quinquevittatus Wiedemann, 1821, Dipt. exot. nouv. peu eonnus

1:84

T. costalis Graenicher, 1912, Bull. Wis. nat. Hist. Soc. 10:174

Crawford, Dane, Fond du Lac, Jefferson, Kenosha, Lafayette,

Milwaukee, Outagamie, Ozaukee, Racine, Vernon, Walworth,

Waukesha and Winnebago counties. May 13 to August 16

Specimens examined: 130 females, 8 males.

1958]

Roberts & Dicke — Wisconsin Tabanidae

39

10. reinwar dtii Wiedemann, 1828, Auss. zweifl. Ins. 1 :130

T. reinwardtii Graenicher, 1912, Bull. Wis. nat. Hist. Soc.

10:175

Bayfield, Dane, Florence, Milwaukee, Racine, Rusk, Sauk, Saw¬

yer, Vilas and Walworth counties. June 25 to September 8

Specimens examined: 15 females.

11. sparus Whitney, 1879, Canad. Ent. 11 :38

Adams county. July 23

Specimens examined : 1 female.

12. stygius Say, 1823, Jour. Acad. nat. Sci. Philad. 3 :33

T. stygius Graenicher, 1912, Bull. Wis. nat. Hist. Soc. 10:175

Dane, Milwaukee, Racine, Washburn and Waukesha counties.

June 20 to July 24

Specimens examined : 8 females, 2 males.

13. sulcifrons Macquart, 1855, Dipt. exot. nouv. peu connus Sup. V,

p. 33

Kenosha county. July 28

Specimens examined : 1 male.

14. trimaculatus Palisot de Beauvois, 1807, Ins. rec. en Afr. et en

Amer., p. 56

T. trimaculatus Graenicher, 1912, Bull. Wis. nat. Hist. Soc.

10:175

Columbia, Dane, Green Lake, Jefferson, Richland, Sheboygan,

Walworth and Winnebago counties. June 8 to July 27

Specimens examined : 20 females, 6 males.

15. vivax Osten Sacken, 1876, Mem. Boston Soc. nat. Hist. 2:446

T. vivax Graenicher, 1912, Bull. Wis. nat. Hist. Soc. 10:175

Burnett, Dane, Douglas, Rusk and Vilas counties. June 30 to

July 21

Specimens examined : 6 females.

Hybomitra Enderlein

1. affinis (Kirby), 1837, Fauna Bor. Amer. 4:313 ( Tabanus )

T. affinis Graenicher, 1912, Bull. Wis. nat. Hist. Soc. 10:173

Ashland, Burnett, Dane, Door, Douglas, Florence, Forest, Lin¬

coln, Manitowoc, Marinette, Oneida, Price, Rusk, Sawyer, Sha¬

wano, Vilas and Washburn counties. May 30 to July 12

Specimens examined : 456 females, 1 male.

2. astuta (Osten Sacken), 1876, Mem. Boston Soc. nat. Hist. 2:471

( Tabanus)

T. astutus Graenicher, 1912, Bull. Wis. nat. Hist. Soc. 10:174

Florence and Vilas counties. August 6 to August 18

Specimens examined : 3 females, 1 male

40 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [_Vol. 47

3. criddlei (Brooks), 1946, Canad. Ent. 77:234 ( Tabanus )

Florence, Sawyer and Shawano counties. June 17 to July 5

Specimens examined : 7 females, 1 male.

4. epistat.es (Osten Sacken), 1878, Mem. Boston Soc. nat. Hist. 2

(sup.) : 555 ( Tabanus )

T. epistates Graenicher, 1912, Bull. Wis. nat. Hist. Soc. 10:174

Bayfield, Burnett, Dane, Dodge, Florence, Poorest, Iron, Lang¬

lade, Marquette, Milwaukee, Oneida, Polk, Price, Richland,

Rusk, Sawyer, Shawano, Vilas, Washburn, Waukesha, Wau¬

paca, Waushara, Winnebago and Wood counties. June 1 to

August 20

Specimens examined : 1530 females, 6 males.

5. frontalis (Walker), 1848, List Dipt. Brit. Mus. I, p. 172

( Tabanus )

Bayfield, Dane and Rusk counties. June 30 to August 28

Specimens examined : 26 females.

5a. subsp. septentrionalis (Loew), 1858, Verh. zool.-bot. Ges.

Wien. 8:592 ( Tabanus )

Vilas county. August

Specimens examined : 1 female.

6. gracilipalpus (Hine), 1923, Canad. Ent. 55:143 ( Tabanus )

Price and Vilas counties. June 20 to June 24

Specimens examined : 23 females.

7. hinei (Johnson), 1904, Psyche 11 :15 ( Tabanus )

Florence and Washburn counties. June 26 to July 26

Specimens examined : 13 females, 2 males.

8. illota (Osten Sacken), 1876, Mem. Boston Soc. nat. Hist. 2:469

( Tabanus )

Columbia, Dane, Door, Florence, Marinette, Oneida, Price,

Rusk, Sawyer, St. Croix, Washburn, Waupaca and Wood coun¬

ties. May 22 to August 10

Specimens examined : 532 females, 41 males.

9. itasca (Philip), 1936, Canad. Ent. 68:149 ( Tabanus )

Rusk county. July 16

Specimens examined : 1 female.

10. lasiophthalma (Macquart), 1838, Dipt. exot. nouv. peu connus

1:1, 143 ( Tabanus)

T. lasiophthalmus Graenicher, 1912, Bull. Wis. nat. Hist. Soc.

10:174

Ashland, Bayfield, Burnett, Chippewa, Crawford, Dane, Door,

Florence, Forest, Iron, Jefferson, Juneau, Kewaunee, Langlade,

Manitowoc, Marinette, Milwaukee, Oneida, Outagamie, Price,

Richland, Rusk, Sawyer, Shawano, St. Croix, Vernon, Vilas,

1 958]

Roberts & Dicke — Wisconsin Tabanidae

41

Walworth, Washburn, Washington, Waukesha, Waupaca,

Winnebago and Wood counties. May 3 to August 25

Specimens examined : 2295 females, 15 males.

11. liorhina (Philip) , 1936, Canad. Ent. 68 :151 ( Tabanus )

Bayfield county. July 19

Specimens examined : 1 female.

12. metabola (McDunnough) , 1922, Canad. Ent. 54:239 ( Tabanus )

Dane, Florence, Marinette, Price and Rusk counties. May 30 to

August 1

Specimens examined : 32 females, 1 male.

13. microcephala (Osten Sacken), 1876, Mem. Boston Soc. nat.

Hist. 2:470 ( Tabanus )

Door and Florence counties. July 4 to July 7

Specimens examined : females.

14. minuscula (Hine), 1907, Ohio Nat. 8:226 ( Tabanus )

Rusk and Washburn counties. June 27 to July 27

Specimens examined : 2 females.

15. nuda (McDunnough), 1921, Canad. Ent. 53:143 ( Tabanus )

Dane, Door, Florence, Forest, Oneida, Outagamie, Price, Rusk,

Sawyer, Vilas, Washburn and Wood counties. May 18 to July 19

Specimens examined : 468 females, 2 males.

16. sonomensis (Osten Sacken), 1877, West. Dipt., U. S. Geog.

Surv. Ill, p. 216 (Tabanus)

Florence county. July 5

Specimens examined : 1 female.

17. trepida (McDunnough), 1921, Canad. Ent. 53:142 ( Tabanus )

Adams, Ashland, Bayfield, Burnett, Dane, Door, Florence, La

Crosse, Langlade, Marinette, Oneida, Price, Rusk, Sawyer, Sha¬

wano, Vilas and Washburn counties. April 7 to August 27

Specimens examined : 303 females, 2 males.

18. trispila (Wiedemann), 1828, Auss. zweifl. Ins. 1 :150 ( Tabanus )

Bayfield, Dane, Door, Dunn, Florence, Marinette, Rusk, Sawyer,

Washburn and Washington counties. May 14 to September 2

Specimens examined : 173 females, 4 males.

19. typha (Whitney), 1904, Canad. Ent. 36:206 ( Tabanus )

Florence, Forest, La Crosse, Marinette, Oneida, Outagamie,

Price, Rusk, Sawyer, Vilas and Washburn counties. April 19 to

August 6

Specimens examined : 603 females.

20. zonalis (Kirby), 1837, Fauna Bor. Amer. 4:314 ( Tabanus )

T. zonalis Graenicher, 1912, Bull. Wis. nat. Hist. Soc. 10:175

T. flavipes Graenicher, 1912, Bull. Wis. nat. Hist. Soc. 10:174

Florence, La Crosse, Marinette, Oneida, Price, Rusk, Sawyer,

Shawano, Vilas and Washburn counties. April 19 to July 20

Specimens examined : 37 females.

42 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

Aty lotus Osten Sacken

1. bicolor (Wiedemann), 1821, Dipt. exot. nouv. peu connus 1:96

( Tabanus )

Dane and Grant counties. May 7 to July 30

Specimens examined : 3 females, 3 males.

2. ohioensis (Hine), 1901, Canad. Ent. 33:28 ( Tabanus )

Dane county. July

Specimens examined : 2 females.

3. thoracicus (Hine), 1900, Canad. Ent. 32:248 ( Tabanus )

Dane and Door counties. June 7 to August 9

Specimens examined : 2 females, 7 males.

Acknowledgements

The identifications of the species reported in this paper have been

confirmed by Dr. C. B. Philip of the National Microbiological In¬

stitute at Hamilton, Montana. The Illinois records of Wisconsin

species were obtained from the collection of the Illinois Natural

History Survey through Dr. H. H. Ross. Mr. Kirby Hays of the

University of Michigan supplied the records for the upper penin¬

sula of Michigan. The Iowa records came from an examination of

the Iowa State College collection sent by Dr. J. L. Laffoon and from

a check list supplied by Dr. H. E. Jacques of Mt. Pleasant, Iowa.

Minnesota records were taken from Philip’s 1931 paper. Addi¬

tional Wisconsin records were obtained from the Milwaukee Public

Museum through Mr. Kenneth MacArthur, from the Marshall col¬

lection and from collections made by Mr. R. A. Buchstaff of the

Oshkosh Public Museum.

Literature Cited

Brennan, J. M. 1935. The Pangoniinae of Nearctic America (Tabanidae,

Diptera). Kans. Univ. Sci. Bull. 22:239-401.

Fairchild, C. B. 1934. Notes on Tabanidae Occ. Pap. Boston Soc. nat. Hist.

8:139-144.

Graenicher, S. 1912. Records of Wisconsin Diptera. Bull. Wis. nat. Hist. Soc.

10:171-185.

Hine, J. S. 1907. Descriptions of new North American Tabanidae. Ohio Nat.

8:221-230.

Osten Sacken, C. R. 1875-76. Prodrome of a Monograph of the Tabanidae of

the United States. Mem. Boston Soc. nat. Hist. 2:365-397, 421-479, 555—560.

Philip, C. B. 1931. The Tabanidae (Horseflies) of Minnesota with Special

Reference to Their Biologies and Taxonomy. Tech. Bull. Minn, agric. Exp.

Sta. No. 80, 132 pp.

- . 1947. A catalog of the Blood-sucking Fly Family Tabanidae (Horse¬

flies and Deerflies) of the Nearctic Region North of Mexico. Amer. Midi.

Nat. 37:257-324.

- . 1950. Corrections and Addenda to a Catalog of Nearctic Tabanidae.

Ibid. 43:430-437.

Stone, A. 1938. The Horseflies of the Subfamily Tabanidae of the Nearctic

Region. Misc. Publ. U. S. Dep. Agric. No. 305, 171 pp.

HARVESTMEN AND SPIDERS OF WISCONSIN;

ADDITIONAL SPECIES AND NOTES

Herbert W. Levi, Lorna R. Levi and John L. Kaspar

Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University and

Department of Zoology, University of Wisconsin

Two previous papers (1952, 1954) have listed harvestmen and

spiders found in Wisconsin. Since the publication of these, large

additional collections have become available. Although the smaller

spiders, particularly the micryphantids, have not been completely

sorted out because of difficulties in determining them, it is worth¬

while to present a list of additional records with habitat notes at

the present time. Species not heretofore collected in the state have

been marked with an asterisk.

Most of this work was done while the senior author was on the

faculty of the University of Wisconsin, at the Wausau Extension

Center and with the Department of Zoology in Madison. The paper

was completed at the Rocky Mountain Biological Laboratory,

Crested Butte, Colorado. We want to thank Dr. R. Chew of the Uni¬

versity of Southern California for spiders collected while he was

on the staff of Lawrence College, and the graduate students of the

department of zoology for help in obtaining additional records.

To this date 15 species of harvestmen and 438 species of spiders

are known from Wisconsin.

CLASS ARACHNIDA

Order Phalangida (Harvestmen)

SUBORDER PALPATORES

Nemastomatidae

Crosbycus dasycnemus (Crosby). Found by sifting hardwood lit¬

ter. Columbia Co. : 3 mi. north of Portage. Iron Co. : nr. Powell,

Sandy Beach Lake. La Crosse Co. : 3 mi. northeast of Coon Valley.

Sauk Co. : 6 mi. southwest of Sauk City. Vernon Co. : Wildcat Mtn. :

State Pk. : 5 mi. north of Viola.

Ischyropsalidae

* Caddo boopis Crosby. One specimen found in mixed hardwood

litter. Vernon Co. : 5 mi. north of Viola.

43

44 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

Order Araneae

SUBORDER ORTHOGNATHA

Atypidae (Purse- web spiders)

Atypus niger Hentz. Dane Co.: University Arboretum, Madison;

Shorewood quarry, Madison (R. Nero).

SUBORDER LABIDOGNATHA

Pholcidae (Cellar spiders)

Pholcus phalangioides (Fuesslin). Columbia Co. (J. Kaspar).

Theridiidae (Comb-footed spiders)

As a result of recent revisions in this family and of Opinion 517

of the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature to

continue established usage of generic names, a number of names as

given in the 1954 paper must be changed. Given here is a complete

list of theridiid spiders found in Wisconsin.

Achaearanea globosa (Hentz), {—Hentziectypus globosum, Levi

and Field, 1954) Winnebago Co.: Zittau ; Point Comfort.

A. rupicola (Emerton), (= Cryptachaea rupicola )

A. tepidariorum (C. L. Koch), {—Parasteatoda tepidariorum )

Argyrodes trigona (Hentz) { — Conopistha trigona)

Coressa stridula (Crosby) , ( = Theonoe stridula )

Crustulina altera Gertsch and Archer. Sauk Co. : Ferry Bluff.

*C. sticta (0. P. Cambridge). Winnebago Co.: Point Comfort

( J. Kaspar) .

Ctenium banksi Kaston

C. eremophilus (Chamberlin)

*C. fuscus (Emerton). Found in pine litter. Sauk Co.: Devil’s

Lake State Pk. ; East Bluff.

*C. laticeps (Keyserling) . Clark Co.: 12 mi. east of Neillsville.

C. longipalpus Kaston

C. riparius (Keyserling)

C. spiniferus (Emerton). Rusk Co.: Bruce.

Dipoena nigra (Emerton)

Enoplognatha marmorata (Hentz), { — Theridion marmoratum) .

Sauk Co. ; Ferry Bluff.

E.rugosa (Emerton), { — Theridion rug o sum)

E. tecta (Keyserling), { — Theridion puritanum)

Euryopis argentea Emerton

E. limbata (Walckenaer)

E. pepini Levi ( = E. calif ornica, err. det.)

E. saukea Levi

1958]

Levi el at — Wisconsin Spiders

45

Latrodectus curacaviensis ( M till. ) . Black-widow spider. Grant

Co.: Wyalusing State Pk., under log (S. Wellso). Waushara Co.:

Twin Lake Boy Scout Camp (S. Wellso). ( —L . mactans Levi and

Field, 1954). This is not the southern black spider, L. mactans,

which occurs as far north as central Illinois, but has not been found

resident in Wisconsin.

Pholcommci hirsuta Emerton {— Ancylorrhanis hirsutum)

Sphyrotinus unimaculatus (Emerton), ( = Tholocco unimaculata )

Jefferson Co. : Hope Lake Bog.

Steatoda albomaeulata (De Geer), {—Lithyphantes albomacu-

latus) . Juneau Co. : Camp Douglas.

S. americana (Emerton), {—Asagena americana)

S. borealis (Hentz)

S. triangulosa (Walckenaer) , { — Teutana triangulosa)

Theridion alabamense Gertsch and Archer, ( = Allot herid 'ion ala -

Immense )

T. albidum Banks, {— Allotheridion albidum )

T. aurantium Emerton

T. berkeleyi Emerton, (= Allotheridion fieldi) . Winnebago Co.:

Point Comfort; Zittau.

T. differens Emerton, (= Allotheridion cliff evens)

T. frondeum Emerton, ( — Allotheridion frondeum)

T. glaucescens Becker, ( —Allotheridion glaucescens )

T. lyricum Walckenaer, = ( Allotheridion lyricum)

T. murarium Emerton, {—Allotheridion murarium)

T. pictum (Walckenaer), {—Allotheridion zelotypum) . Oneida

Co. (D. Wills).

T. sexpunctatum Emerton

Theridula emertoni Levi, { = Theridula sphaerula, err. det.).

Linyphiidae (Sheet-web weavers)

Bathyphantes pallidus (Banks). Iron Co.: Manitowish, in white

pine litter.

*B. pullatus (0. P. Cambridge). Douglas Co.: Cedar IsL, Brule.

Iron Co. : Manitowish, in white pine litter.

*Z>. iveyeri (Emerton). Found in caves. Richland Co.: Eagle

Cave.

*Centromerus cornupalpis (0. P. Cambridge). Dane Co.: Madi¬

son (T. K. Hagene).

*Lepthyphantes sp., $ nr. washingtoni. Florence Co. : Long Lake,

in sphagnum.

L. zebra (Emerton). Florence Co.: 2 mi. northwest of Tipler, in

aspen litter : Sheboygan Co. : Cedar Grove.

*Macrargas multesimus (0. P. Cambridge). Found in deciduous

forest litter. Clark Co. : nr. Stanley. Florence Co. : 2 mi. northwest

46 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

of Tipler. Jackson Co. : Castle Mound Park. Marathon Co. : Eau

Claire Dells. Sheboygan Co. : Cedar Grove. Vilas Co. : 4 mi. east of

Eagle River.

*Meioneta unimaculata (Banks). Winnebago Co.: Point Comfort

(J. Kaspar).

Microneta viaria (Blackwall). Found in leaf litter. Barron Co.;

Columbia Co.; Forest Co.; Jackson Co.; Manitowoc Co.; Marathon

Co.; Monroe Co.; Price Co.; Sauk Co.; Waushara Co.; Winnebago

Co.

Pusillia mandibulata (Emerton), Door Co.: Peninsula State

Park. ( —Linyphia maculata Levi and Field, 1954, err. det.).

Tapinopa bilineata Banks. Manitowoc Co. : Point Beach State Pk.,

in fallen pine log. (R. Chew) .

T ennesseellum formicum (Emerton). Dane Co.: Madison

(J. Kaspar).

Micryphantidae (Dwarf spiders)

Catabrithorax plumosus (Emerton). Crawford Co.: Prairie du

Chien (M. Melanie). Winnebago Co.: Point Comfort (J. Kaspar).

Ceraticelus atriceps (0. P. Cambridge). Marathon Co.: Eau

Pleine Flowage.

C. laetabilis (0. P. Cambridge). Found in leaf litter. Barron Co. :

east of Cameron. Manitowoc Co. : Point Beach State Pk. (R. Chew) .

Vernon Co. : Wildcat Mtn. State Pk.

C. laetus (0. P. Cambridge). Found in sphagnum moss. Jackson

Co. : nr. Alma Center. Langlade Co. : 2 mi. north of Parrish. Lincoln

Co. : Jeffris.

C. minutus (Emerton). Found in herbs in forests and in litter.

Adams Co. : 2 mi. south of Adams. Grant Co. : Wyalusing State Pk.

La Crosse Co. : 3 mi. northeast of Coon Valley. Manitowoc Co. :

Point Beach State Pk. (R. Chew). Marathon Co. : Eau Pleine Flow-

age. Sauk Co. : Baxter’s Hollow ; Ferry Bluff ; Leopold Memorial.

Taylor Co. : Chequamegon Natl. For., west of Medford. Vilas Co. :

east of Eagle River.

*C. similis Banks. Sauk Co.: Ferry Bluff (J. Kaspar). Winne¬

bago Co. : Point Comfort ( J. Kaspar) .

*C. sp. $ . Marathon Co. : Hogarty, in sphagnum.

Ceratinella brunnea Emerton. Found in leaf litter. Door Co. :

Peninsula State Pk. Marathon Co. : Maine. Sauk Co. : Leopold Me¬

morial. Sawyer Co. : Flambeau State For. Winnebago Co. : Zittau.

*Ceratinops crenata Emerton. Dane Co.: Mud Lake (D. Wills).

C. rugosa (Emerton). Winnebago Co.: Zittau (J. Kaspar).

*Chocorua cuneata Emerton. Found in leaf litter. Manitowoc Co. :

Point Beach State For. (R. Chew) .

* Cornicularia brevicornus Emerton. Iowa Co. : 7 mi. northwest

of Dodgeville, dry oak litter.

1958]

Levi et al — Wisconsin Spiders

47

C. communis Emerton. Florence Co. : Long Lake, in sphagnum.

C. minuta Emerton. Iowa Co. : 7 mi. northwest of Dodgeville, dry

oak litter. Sauk Co.: Ferry Bluff. Winnebago Co.: Zittau (J. Kas-

par) .

C. pallida Emerton. Vernon Co. : Wildcat Mtn. State Pk., mixed

hardwood litter.

Dismodicus decemoculatus (Emerton). Oneida Co.: Rhinelander

(T. France).

*Eperigone augustalis Crosby and Bishop. Waushara Co. : east of

Red Granite, forest litter.

E. index (Emerton). Found in sphagnum moss. Jackson Co.: 3

m. east of Millston.

*E. tridentata (Emerton). Lincoln Co.: Jeffris, in sphagnum.

*E. sp. Dane Co. : Madison. Marathon Co. : Wausau. Taylor Co. :

Chequamegon Natl. For., west of Medford.

*Erigone alsaida Crosby and Bishop. Abundant in decaying

aquatic vegetation on the shore of some lakes. Rock Co. : Lake Kosh-

konong nr. Edgerton (H. S. Dybas). Vilas Co.: north shore of

Fence Lake.

E. atra Blackwall. Door Co. : Peninsula State Pk., on gravel

beach. Manitowoc Co. : Point Beach State Pk., sweeping sand dune

grass (R. Chew). Winnebago Co.: Point Comfort (J. Kaspar) .

E. blaesa Crosby and Bishop. Vilas Co. : Anvil Lake, in shore

drift.

Gonatium rubens Blackwall. Buffalo Co. : 10 mi. east of Fountain

City, in oak litter. Crawford Co. : Prairie du Chien. Monroe Co. :

nr. Coon Valley in maple-basswood forest. Winnebago Co.: Zittau.

*Grammonota spinimana Emerton. Winnebago Co. : Point Com¬

fort (J. Kaspar).

Hybocoptus cymbadentatus Crosby and Bishop. Found in sphag¬

num. Jackson Co. : 3 mi. east of Hillston. Marathon Co. : Hogarty.

*Maso sundevallii (Westring). Dane Co.: Wingra Marsh in Uni¬

versity Arboretum (R. Nero). Door Co.: Potawatomi State Pk.

Grant Co. : Wyalusing State Pk., in maple-basswood forest. Iowa

Co. : 7 mi. northwest of Dodgeville.

Oedothorax trilobatus (Banks). Vilas Co.: Fence Lake, in shore

drift.

Origanates rostratus (Emerton) . Found in forest litter. Columbia

Co. : Gibraltar Rock, nr. Okee. ; 7 mi. west of Lodi. Dane Co. : nr.

Madison. Portage Co. : 10 mi. south of Stevens Point, in oak litter.

Sauk Co.: Eagle Bluff 5 mi. southwest of Sauk City; Ferry Bluff.

*Pocadicnemis pumila (Blackwall). Taylor Co.: nr. Westboro

(J. Kaspar).

Sciastes terrestris (Emerton). Iowa Co.: 7 mi. northwest of

Dodgeville.

48 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

*S. truncatus (Emerton). Iron Co.: Sandy Beach Lake, Powell.

Manitowoc Co.: Point Beach State Pk., in soil (R. Chew). Oneida

Co. : 2 mi. north of Rhinelander in sphagnum.

*Scirites pectinatus (Emerton). Winnebago Co.: Zittau (J. Kas-

par) .

Scylaceus pallidus (Emerton). Found in leaf litter. Columbia

Co. : Gibraltar Rock, Blackhawk Lookout. Crawford Co. : Wauzeka.

Dane Co. : 7 mi. northeast of Mazomanie. Grant Co. : Wyalusing

State Pk. Iowa Co. : 7 mi. northwest of Dodgeville. Jackson Co. :

Merrillan. Sauk Co. : Leopold Memorial.

Sisicus penifusif erus Bishop and Crosby. Taylor Co. : Chequa-

megon Natl. For., west of Medford, in sphagnum.

Soulgas corticarius (Emerton). Manitowoc Co.: Point Beach

State Pk., sweeping low herbs (R. Chew). Outagamie Co.: Apple-

ton (R. Chew).

*Tapinocyba minuta (Emerton), Florence Co.: 2 mi. northwest

of Tipler, in aspen litter.

T. simplex (Emerton). Found in litter, sometimes in sphagnum.

Door Co. : Peninsula State Pk. Iron Co. : Sandy Beach Lake, Powell.

Jackson Co. : 3 mi. south of Hatfield. Marathon Co. : Rib Mtn. State

Pk. Oneida Co. : 2 mi. north of Rhinelander, Gilmore Lake nr. Lake

Tomahawk. Sawyer Co. : Flambeau State For., scientific area. Tay¬

lor Co. : Chequamegon Natl. For., west of Medford. Vilas Co. : 4 mi.

east of Eagle River.

Walckenaera vigilax (Blackwall). Dane Co.: Madison. Marathon

Co.: Rib Mtn. State Pk. (not Tipler, Florence Co.; Herbster, Bay-

field Co., err. det.)

Argiopidae (Orb Weavers)

*Araneus bicentenarius (McCook). Walworth Co.: Lake Geneva,

Wynchwood (D. C. Lowrie).

A. thaddeus (Hentz). Marathon Co.: Wausau, found in automo¬

bile. Winnebago Co. : Zittau.

Conepeira glyphica Archer. Grant Co. : Wyalusing State Pk.

(J. T. Medler) .

Larinia borealis Banks. Dodge Co. (S. Wellso) .

*Singa campestris Emerton. Vilas Co.: Anvil Lake. (S. varia-

bilis, Levi and Field, 1954, err. det.)

* ?&. keyserlingi, juv. Price Co. : Chequamegon Natl. For. (S. vari-

abilis, ibid., 1954) .

S. variabilis Emerton. Door Co. : nr. Bailey’s Harbor.

Tetragnathidae

Leucauge venusta ( Walckenaer) . Manitowoc Co.: Point Beach

State Pk. (R. Chew).

Pachygnatha ku ratal Levi. Sauk Co.: Ferry Bluff (J. Kaspar).

1958]

Levi el al — Wisconsin Spiders

49

*P. tristriata C. L. Koch. Dane Co. : Picnic Point, Madison

( W. Eustance) . Winnebago Co. : Point Comfort.

Tetragnatha harrodi Levi. Winnebago Co.: Point Comfort

(J. Kaspar).

Mimetidae

*Ero canionis Chamberlin and I vie. Dane Co.: Madison (J. Kas¬

par) .

Mimetus notius Chamberlin. Grant Co. : Wyalusing State Pk.

(J. T. Medler) .

Agelenidae (Funnel-web weavers)

Circurina arcuata Keyserling. Sauk Co. : Ferry Bluff. Winnebago

Co. : Zittau ( J. Kaspar) .

*C. robusta Simon. Washburn Co. : 14 mi. north of Spooner, in

forest litter.

Hahniidae

*Antistea brunnea (Emerton). Oneida Co.: Hazelhurst, in

sphagnum.

Hahnia cinerea Emerton. Found in dry oak litter. Jefferson Co. :

6 mi. south of Cambridge. Manitowoc Co. : Point Beach State Pk.

(R. Chew). Portage Co.: 10 mi. south of Stevens Point. Sauk Co.:

Eagle Bluff, 5 mi. southwest of Sauk City.

Neoantistea agilis ( Keyserling) . Dodge Co. : Lowell Twnshp.

(G. H. Orians).

Lycosidae (Wolf spiders)

Arctosa emertoni Gertsch. Dane Co. : Madison. Winnebago Co. :

Point Comfort (J. Kaspar).

A. littoralis (Hentz). Sheboygan Co.: Cedar Grove (J. Kaspar).

A. rubicunda (Keyserling). Crawford Co.: Prairie du Chien

(M. Melanie) .

Geolycosci missouriensis (Banks). Dane Co.: Madison. Marathon

Co. : Wausau. Sauk Co. : Ferry Bluff.

*G. wrightii (Emerton). Builds vertical burrows, as much as

three feet in depth in sand. Columbia Co.: Rio (J. Kaspar). Dane

Co.: Arboretum Ponds, Madison (D. Kranendonk). Iowa Co.:

Spring Green. Sauk Co. : T9NRSE, Sec. 36, Troy Township. She¬

boygan Co. : Cedar Grove (D. Berger) .

Pardosa fuscula (Thorell). Jefferson Co.: Hope Lake Bog

(J. Kaspar). Winnebago Co.: Long Point Island (J. Kaspar).

P. lapidicina Emerton. Winnebago Co.: Point Comfort (J. Kas¬

par) .

50 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

Oxyopidae (Lynx spiders)

*Oxyopes scalaris Hentz. Dane Co. : Madison. Marathon Co. :

Wausau. Immature Oxyopes of this species or of O. salticus were

found to feed in large numbers on sawfly larvae on conifers in the

University Arboretum, Madison, by J. Kapler.

Gnaphosidae (Running spiders)

Cesonia bilineata (Hentz). Sauk Co.: Ferry Bluff (J. Kaspar).

Drassodes auriculoides Barrows. Sauk Co.: Ferry Bluff (J. Kas¬

par) .

*Drassyllus eremitus Chamberlin. Marathon Co. : Bevent, in

sphagnum moss.

*D. fem oralis (Banks). Dane Co.: Madison, in building (H. C.

Mueller) .

D. niger (Banks). Bayfield Co.: T46N, R7W, Highway H. Sauk

Co. : Ferry Bluff (J. Kaspar).

D. rufulus (Banks) . Dane Co. : Madison (D. Wills) .

Gnaphosa fontinalis Iveyserling. Sauk Co. : Ferry Bluff.

Haplodrassus hiemalis Emerton. Ashland Co. : Copper Falls State

Pk. (J. Kaspar).

Nodocion melanie Levi. Dane Co. : Madison (D. Wills) . Washburn

Co. : Spooner, in wasp nest provision ( J. T. Medler) .

Sosticus insularis (Banks). Grant Co.: Glen Haven (Breuer).

Clubionidae (Sack spiders)

Agroeca pratensis Emerton. Florence Co.: Long Lake, in

sphagnum.

Clubiona canadensis Emerton. Winnebago Co. : Point Comfort

(J. Kaspar).

*C. kastoni Gertsch. Polk Co.: St. Croix Falls (N. Banks).

C. mixta Emerton. Sheboygan Co.: Cedar Grove (J. Kaspar).

*C. trivialis Koch. Manitowoc Co.: Point Beach State For.

Micaria longipes Emerton. La Crosse Co. : T17N, R7W, Sec. 12

(J. Kaspar).

M. montana Emerton. Dodge Co. : S. of Beaver Dam ( J. Kaspar) .

Phrurotimpus borealis (Emerton). Price Co. : 8 mi. west of Pren¬

tice, in litter.

Scotinella madisonia Levi. Dane Co. : Shorewood quarry, Madi¬

son, on ant hill.

S. minnetonka (Chamberlin and Gertsch). Found in forest litter.

Columbia Co. : Gibraltar Rock, nr. Okee. Jefferson Co. : Hope Lake

Bog. Kewaunee Co.: Kewaunee (A. Ziemer). La Crosse Co.: 8 mi.

southeast of La Crosse. Marathon Co. : Eau Pleine Flowage, Eau

Claire Dells. Portage Co. : Bancroft. Washburn Co. : 14 mi. north

of Spooner. Wood Co. : 3 mi. south of Wisconsin Rapids.

1958]

Levi et a l — Wisconsin Spiders

51

Anyphaenidae

Anyphaena celer (Hentz). Sauk Co.: Ferry Bluff (J. Kaspar).

Richland Co. (D. Wills).

Thomisidae (Crab spiders)

*Ebo latithorax Keyserling. Columbia Co.: Rio, on tree trunk

(G. H. Orians).

Oxyptila americana Banks. Manitowoc Co. : Point Beach State

Pk., sweeping in hemlock forest (R. Chew). Marathon Co.: Eau

Pleine Flowage.

*0. monroensis Keyserling. Found in leaf litter. Grant Co. : Wya-

lusing State Pk., in maple-basswood forest. Sauk Co. : Eagle Bluff,

5 mi. southwest of Sauk City.

*0. nevadensis Keyserling. Waushara Co. : 2 mi. north of Coloma,

in pine litter.

Philodromus infuscatus Keyserling. Grant Co. : Wyalusing State

Pk. ( J. T. Medler) . Sauk Co. : Ferry Bluff.

P. satullus Keyserling. Lafayette Co. : Darlington. Winnebago

Co. : Point Comfort. (=P. placidus, Levi and Field, 1954, err. det.).

Xysticus bicuspis Keyserling. Sauk Co. : Ferry Bluff ( J. Kas¬

par) .

X. lutulentus Gertsch. Manitowoc Co. : Point Beach State Pk.

(R. Chew) .

X. punctatus Keyserling. Oneida Co. : Camp Tesomas nr. Rhine¬

lander (T. France).

Salticidae (Jumping spiders)

*Euophrys monadnock Emerton. Juneau Co.: Camp Douglas

(D. Wills).

*Habrocestum parvulum Banks. Shawano Co. : nr. Neopit, maple-

basswood litter.

Habronattus decorus (Blackwall). Winnebago Co.: Point Com¬

fort (J. Kaspar).

Icius elegans (Hentz). Dane Co.: Sunset Point quarry, Madison.

Phidippus apacheanus Chamberlin and Gertsch. Waushara Co. :

Plainfield (J. Kaspar).

P. whitmanii Peckham. Sauk Co.: Ferry Bluff (J. Kaspar).

Phlegra fasciata (Hahn). Dane Co.: Shorewood quarry, Madi¬

son. Juneau Co. : Camp Douglas (D. Wills) .

Zygoballus bettini Peckham. Fond du Lac Co.: Camp Long Lake.

Winnebago Co.: Zittau (J. Kaspar).

Z. nervosus (Peckham). Sauk Co.: Ferry Bluff (J. Kaspar).

Winnebago Co. : Long Point Island ( J. Kaspar) .

52

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

Dictynidae (Hackled-band weavers)

Dictyna bostoniensis Emerton. Grant Co. : Glen Haven (Breuer).

Winnebago Co. : Point Comfort, County Road Z at Highway 41.

D. hentzi Kaston. Dane Co. : Sun Prairie. Walworth Co. : T4N,

P18E. Sec. 16 (J. Ivaspar).

D. minuta Emerton. Rusk Co. : Ladysmith. Winnebago Co. : Point

Comfort (J. Kaspar).

Lathys foxii (Marx) . Wood Co. : 3 mi. south of Wisconsin Rapids.

Scotolathys pallidus (Marx). Manitowoc Co.: Point Beach State

Pk., in leaf litter (R. Chew). Outagamie Co.: Appleton, sweeping-

herbs (R. Chew). Portage Co. : Bancroft, oak litter.

Uloboridae (Hackled band orb weavers)

Hyptiotes cavatus (Hentz) . Richland Co. : Rockbridge.

Amaurobiidae (Hackled band weavers)

Walmus borealis (Emerton). Douglas Co.: north of Solon

Springs. Price Co. : 8 mi. west of Prentice, in forest litter.

Erroneous records

Ceraticelus limnologicus, Levi and Field, 1954, not this species.

Hyptiotes gertschi Chamberlin and I vie, 1935, Bull. Univ. of

Utah, biol. ser., vol. 2, no. 4, p. 12. Longmire, Wisconsin should read

Longmire, Washington.

Literature Cited

Levi, H. W. and H. M. Field, 1954, The spiders of Wisconsin. Amer. Midland

Nat. 51:440-467.

Levi, L. R. and H. W. Levi, 1952, Preliminary list of harvestmen of Wiscon¬

sin. Trans. Wise. Acad. Sci. 41:163-167.

A TRAP-NEST SURVEY OF SOLITARY BEES AND WASPS

IN WISCONSIN, WITH BIOLOGICAL NOTES

T. W. Koerber1 and J. T. Medler2

University of Wisconsin, Madison

Many species of solitary bees and wasps nest in hollow steins,

holes in logs, and similar natural locations. Among the previous stu¬

dents of bee and wasp biology, only a few workers in Europe and

North America have provided different types of artificial nesting-

holes and have recorded the acceptance of such holes by various

species. Since 1951, artificial nesting holes or “trap-nests” have

been used in northern Wisconsin in connection with research on the

pollinators of legume seed crops. The success experienced in attract¬

ing not only Megachilidae, but eumenid, sphecid, and pompilid

wasps with a relatively few trap-nests, and in a limited area, sug¬

gested that a similar study on a state-wide scale would add to our

knowledge regarding these insects. Accordingly, a trap-nest survey

was made in order to learn more about the distribution and nesting

biology of solitary bees and wasps in Wisconsin. This is a report

on the data obtained during the 1956 season.

Methods

The trap-nest used in this survey was a section of sumac stem

about eight inches long with a six inch hole bored in the center.

The diameter of the hole was either 14-inch or TVmch.

Twenty locations (Figure 1) were selected to represent different

major habitats and to give a state-wide distribution. In the spring

of 1956, bundles of trap-nests were placed at trapping sites at each

vocation. Each bundle contained three sticks with 14,-inch holes and

three sticks with T4-inch holes. The bundle of trap-nests was held

together with a i/2-inch rubber band cut from old automobile tire

inner tube. Each bundle also contained a solid stick of wood about

one inch square and six to eight inches long. This stick had two

hooks by which the bundle was attached to a wire around a tree

1 Research Assistant, Department of Entomology, University of Wisconsin. Now with

The Division of Forest Insect Research, U. S. Forest Service, California Forest and

Range Experiment Station, Berkeley, California. Information given in this paper was

submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science

in Entomology at the University of Wisconsin.

2 Associate Professor, Departments of Agronomy and Entomology, University of Wis¬

consin, Madison. This work was supported in part by the Research Committee of the

Graduate School of the University of Wisconsin from funds supplied by the Wisconsin

Alumni Research Foundation.

53

54 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

or to a fence wire. The solid stick carried the serial number of the

bundle written in indelible pencil.

Two bundles of trap-nests were placed at each site. A high bundle

was placed four to seven feet above the ground and a low bundle

between the ground and the two foot level, usually directly below

the high bundle. The bundles were inspected at four to six week in¬

tervals during the summer. Each sumac stick was examined and

those which contained nests were brought back to the laboratory

for study. The occupied trap-nests were immediately replaced with

empty ones, so that each bundle of trap-nests contained the same

number of sticks with the same size holes throughout the summer.

The trap-nests which were brought back to the laboratory were

split carefully so that damage to the contents was kept to a mini¬

mum. A diagram was made and notes were taken on the contents

of each nest. Photographs were made of many of the nests and of

representative specimens. The immature insects were transferred

to individual vials for rearing and observation. A coding system

was devised to indicate location, site, nest, and cell. Every specimen

could be associated with its nest by means of the code designations,

and also with all notes, pictures and diagrams.

Results

The number of nests built by each of the important species at

the twenty locations is given in Table 1. There were different num¬

bers of trapping sites and trap-nests used at the various locations.

Of the 1647 trap-nests placed at the 94 trapping sites, 778 or

47.2% were accepted by bees and wasps.

Considerable data were obtained on the distribution, abundance

and habitat preferences of the various species of bees and wasps

that used the trap-nests. All of these insects built a linear series of

cells which they provisioned with food for their larvae. An egg was

deposited in each provisioned cell and the resulting larva grew to

maturity, pupated and finally emerged as an adult bee or wasp.

The various species differed widely in 'the materials used to con¬

struct the cells, the size and number of cells per nest, and the cell

provisions. The information obtained on nest construction, biology

of the progeny, and the parasites, is not given in this report. These

data have been consolidated with data obtained during a period of

several years and will be published in a series of reports on the

biologies of the various species.

Because of similar nesting habits, it might be expected that the

species utilizing the trap-nests would compete for the limited num¬

ber of nesting holes. It was not possible to measure exactly the in¬

terspecific competion. However, it appeared that intraspecific com-

petion was more important than interspecific competion, because

TABLE I

The number of Nests of Each of the Principle Species Taken at Each of the Trapping Areas

1958]

Koerbe &

Medler — Solitary Bees

and Wasps

55

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3 Osmia albiventris Cress., O. coerulescens Linn., O. tersula Ckll., O. lignaria Say, O. proximo, Cress. ; Megachile brevis Say, 1/

centuncularis (Linn.) ; Ancistrocerus tigris (Sauss.) ; Symmorphus cristatus (Sauss.) ; Trypoxylon striatum Prov., T. frigidum Sm.,

T. rubro- cine turn Pack., Pemphredon inornatus Say, P. tenax Fox ; Auplopus sp.

56 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and ' Letters [Vol. 47

the various species showed differences in distribution, hole size

preference, and food requirements for provisioning cells. The avail¬

ability of food may have been related to the distribution and abund¬

ance of the species, but food was plentiful and, therefore, not con¬

sidered to be a major factor in the selection of the nesting site.

Three species of megachilid bees, Megachile inermis Prov., M.

relativa Cress., and M. mendica Cress., occurred in considerable

numbers in the trap-nests. All used pollen and nectar to provision

their cells. M. inermis was found in the northern part of the state

and M. mendica in the southern part only. Nests of M. relativa were

common in northern locations, but became less abundant in south¬

ern Wisconsin, and none were taken at two of the southernmost

locations. Nests taken in the southern part of the state generally

produced smaller specimens of M. relativa than those obtained from

locations farther north. M. mendica preferred to nest in dry open

locations where few M. relativa nests were built. The habitats in

which M. relativa and M. inermis built their nests were similar

except that M. relativa built many nests in fence rows, whereas

M. inermis was apparently restricted to woodland habitats. M. in¬

ermis is a large bee and was unable to use holes having a diameter

of a 1,4-inch. M. relativa and M. mendica, which are smaller bees,

were able to use both 14,-inch and W-inch holes. The distribution of

these three species is shown in Figure 2.

Two species of eumenid wasps, Rygchium foraminatum (Sauss.)

and Ancistrocerus antilope (Panz.) , were found commonly through¬

out Wisconsin. Both species provisioned their cells with caterpillars

and used both size holes. However, the two species differed in their

habitat preference. R. foraminatum showed a strong preference

for open areas and fence rows. A. antilope preferred woodland loca¬

tions, although its preference was not so strongly defined as that of

R. foraminatum. The habitat preferences of these two species were

much more strongly indicated at the extreme northern and south¬

ern locations. In the north A. antilope nested in nearly all habicats

whereas R. foraminatum was found only in the most open loca¬

tions. In the south R. foraminatum was found under a variety of

conditions and A. antilope nested only in heavily wooded locations.

It seemed that the relative abundance of R. foraminatum and A.

antilope was strongly influenced by the proportion of wooded land

to open land in any given area. A high proportion of wooded land

such as exists in northern Wisconsin could produce conditions

favorable for A. antilope . Some members of the resulting large

population of A. antilope would be forced to nest in the less favored

open areas. A high proportion of open land with fence rows such

as exists in the southern part of the state would favor a large popu¬

lation of R. foraminatum. The combination of a high R. forami-

1 958]

Koerbe & Medler — Solitary Bees and W asps

57

• M BEL ATI VA

▲ M. MENDICA

I M. INERMIS

A A ANTILOPE

• R. FORAMINATUM

FIG 2

Figure 1. Locations of twenty trap-nest sites in Wisconsin, 1956.

Figure 2. Distribution of three species of Megachile at trap-nest sites.

Figure 3. Distribution of two species of Eumeyiinae at trap-nest sites.

Figure 4. Distribution of Try poxy loninae, Sphecinae, and Pepsinae at trap-

nest sites.

D. SAYI

C HARRISI

TRVPOXYLON SPP

FIG 3

FIG. A

58 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

natum population and a reduced area of favorable habitat would

tend to limit A. antilope to small populations in the areas of favor¬

able habitat. The distribution of the two species is shown in

Figure 3.

A pepsid spider wasp, Dipogon sayi Banks, occurred throughout

the state, and appeared to be equally abundant at all the locations.

It showed a strong preference for woodland habitats, including the

edges of wooded areas. Relatively few trap-nests were utilized in

dry and wet open habitats such as upland fields and pastures or

marshes and wet meadows.

Only those trap-nests in the southern part of Wisconsin were

utilized by sphecid wasps in the genus Trypoxylon, the most com¬

mon species being T. striatum Prov. Also collected was T. rubro-

cinctum Pack., but as this species is only about half the size of

T. striatum, it probably preferred to use smaller holes than the

ones in the trap-nests. We do not have enough data on Trypoxylon

to evaluate habitat preferences.

Although D. sayi and Trypoxylon spp. provisioned their nests

with spiders, they were not in competition for food, as the spiders

used by D. sayi were mainly Thomisidae, whereas those used by

Trypoxylon were mainly Argiopidae.

Another sphecid, Chlorion harrisi Fern., was collected at 4 widely

distributed sites, but showed a very limited habitat requirement.

The species was found only in the trap-nests located in large, well-

drained open fields. Nests were provisioned with nymphs and adults

of saltatorial orthoptera, mostly in the genus Oecanthus. Host spe¬

cies sampled from nests included Oecanthus quadripunctatus Beut.,

0. augustipennis Fitch, O. niveus (DeG.) Neoxabea bipunctata

(DeG.), and Conocephalus fasciatus (DeG.). The distribution of

the pepsid and sphecid wasps is shown in Figure 4.

Isopods, spiders, caterpillars and ants competed with the bees

and wasps for the trap-nests. The isopods invaded trap-nests placed

near the ground or in wet locations, but were probably not very

important competitors, using the holes only for shelter.

Small spiders in the family Gnaphosidae constructed an oval

silken case, open at one end, in which to live. The or TVinch hole

in the end of the trap-nest seemed to be an ideal place to construct

the case. The number of trap-nests used this way was not very large

but the spiders were apparently permanent residents, using the

same stick all summer. Spiders in the family Agelenidae built a

large sheet-like web at the end of the bundle of trap-nests, blocking

the holes. The spider spent most of its time in a tubular retreat

between the sticks. These spiders probably do not compete with

the bees and wasps in nature, since they do not get into the nesting

holes. It was interesting to find these spiders preventing wasps

59

1958] Koerbe & Medler — Solitary Bees and Wasps

from using a trap-nest, while other spiders were being used as food

by wasps in other trap-nests in the same bundle.

In some locations in the northern part of the state, forest tent

caterpillars, Malacosoma disstria Hbn., entered the trap-nests to

spin cocoons and pupate. The competition from these caterpillars

was not extensive and probably was coincidental with a local cat¬

erpillar outbreak. The lepidopterous larva, Chamyris cerintha

Treitschke, entered some of the sticks. This species was widely dis¬

tributed, but was not particularly abundant in any one place. The

larvae enter holes in the late summer, pupate, and emerge as adult

moths in the spring; so the occupied holes are again available to

bees. At one trapping area, Lucerne Farm, Waushara County, cut¬

worms were very abundant and used the holes of the trap-nests as

resting shelters during the day. All of the trap-nests located at three

places in the infested area, including those six feet from the ground,

were taken over by the cutworms, up to three or four cutworms

occupying each trap-nest. Presumably, any natural holes suitable

for nesting by bees or wasps would be similarly occupied by cut¬

worms. If high populations of cutworms existed over any extensive

area, the solitary bees and wasps might have considerable difficulty

finding suitable holes for nesting.

Ants4 were the most important of all the competitors and occu¬

pied trap-nests in all parts of the state. Carpenter ants, of which

four species, Camponotus pennsylvanicus (Degeer), C. nearcticus

Emery, C. noveboracensis (Fitch), and C. caryae (Fitch), were

identified, used only one trap-nest at a given time and place. A

dealate female entered a trap-nest, constructed a plug of pith to

close the hole and reared a brood of workers. Except for C. nearcti¬

cus, this process was rather slow, so that the ant populations in the

nests never amounted to more than a few individuals at the end of

four to six weeks when the occupied nests were collected. However,

the trap-nests seemed to be well suited to C. narcticus, and several

colonies in excess of 500 individuals were taken ; possibly as the

result of the migration of existing colonies into the sticks.

Crematog aster cerasi (Fitch) invaded the trap-nests early in the

summer. They excavated almost all of the pith, except for a thin

layer at one end of the stick. At the other end of the stick a thin

plug was constructed with a hole just large enough to admit a

single ant. It is not known whether established colonies moved into

the trap-nests, or whether the ants had a high rate of reproduction,

but sticks which had been at a trapping site for five or six weeks

contained 20 to 50 adult ants and almost enough eggs, larvae and

1 The authors express appreciation to Dr. W. L. Brown, Jr. and Dr. M. R. Smith

who determined the species of ants. We wish to gratefully acknowledge the generous

help by T. B. Mitchell in the determination of bees, and K. V. Krombein in the deter¬

mination of wasps.

60 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

pupae to fill a 20 ml. vial. Several or all of the trap-nests in a bundle

were used. In cases where several trap-nests were used, it was not

possible to determine if more than one colony of ants was involved.

Many of the colonies apparently failed to maintain themselves or

moved. For example, trap-nests were placed at four locations on

May 20. Two weeks later the traps were inspected and ant invasion

was found at three of the four locations. At the end of three more

weeks ants were found at only one location. A strong colony was

maintained at this location through the entire summer in spite of

efforts to eradicate the ants on two occasions by pouring chloro¬

form into the holes. Another colony which invaded an entire bundle

of trap-nests in Vernon County was left undisturbed. A strong col¬

ony was present when the site was inspected in August. Five weeks

later the ants were no longer present and several of the trap-nests

had been used by D. sayi.

Tapinoma sessile (Say) used the trap-nests in much the same

way as Crematog aster. This species appeared in large numbers and

invariably invaded all of the trap-nests in a bundle. The pith was

excavated and thin plugs with small entry holes were constructed

at either end of the sticks. In addition to rearing their brood in the

bore of the trap-nests these ants closed the interstices between the

sticks with a dark fibrous material and used the resulting chambers

for brood rearing. These ants were very aggressive in spite of their

extreme small size. When the nests were disturbed the ants rushed

out in large numbers, attempted to bite, and produced drops of

strong-smelling acid from the ends of their abdomens.

At a single location in Door County, a nest of Leptothorax cana¬

densis Prov. was found, which contained 6 workers, 40 eggs, 12

small larvae and 15 large larvae.

Although the various ant species compete with the bees and

wasps for nesting holes they probably make more nesting sites

available. The excavation of pith from the trap-nest added two

inches to the length of the nesting hole. Under natural conditions

these ants would excavate even deeper holes which would later be

available to solitary bees and wasps for nesting sites. Colonies of

ants were found nesting in dead sumac stems where they excavated

the pith from the center of the stems.

In those bundles where ants did not occupy all of the trap-nests,

the bees and wasps were not prevented from using those remain¬

ing. Some ant colonies disappeared during the summer and the en¬

larged holes were used by bees and wasps. The reasons for ant

abandonment are not understood, as attempts to eradicate the ants

by removing the occupied sticks or pouring chloroform into the

holes were to no avail. It would seem that some interesting studies

on ant biology could be made using this trap-nesting technique.

1958] Koevbe & Medler — Solitary Bees and Wasps

61

Discussion

Although artificial nests or trap-nests have been used previously

in small numbers or in restricted areas to obtain data on the biol¬

ogy and ecology of various solitary bees and wasps (Krombein,

1955), they have never been used before in a survey over a wide

area. The trap-nest technique is especially valuable as a means of

obtaining data on the biology of insects. If the trap-nests are prop¬

erly placed, much information can be gathered in a relatively short

period of time on the distribution and abundance of species which

ordinarily are rarely encountered.

By using trap-nests, large numbers of the immature stages of

solitary bees and wasps may be obtained for studies of their life

cycles. Observations made on a large sample of larvae from many

nests yield very reliable data.

The sumac stick trap-nests have several advantages over most of

the other types that have been used. They closely approximate hol¬

low sumac stems which are natural nest sites. Sumac grows abund¬

antly along roadsides and in waste land, so that a practically un¬

limited supply is available free of charge. The sumac stems have a

pith center which is very easily drilled out to form the nesting hole.

The sticks are straight-grained, which facilitates splitting with a

pocket knife without injury to the nests. Using a power-driven saw

and drill, one man can make upwards of 300 sumac trap sticks per

day.

The general life histories of bees and wasps have been fairly well

worked out. However, for many species there is little detailed in¬

formation known about their biology and ecology. While some of

the species have been studied in other areas, very little information

is available on any of the species under Wisconsin conditions.

The nesting habits of Dipogon sayi were described briefly by

Peckham and Peckham (1898). The biology of this insect given by

Medler and Koerber (1957) is based on information obtained from

trap-nests.

The Megachilinae have been more extensively studied because of

their importance as pollinators of legume seed crops. Peck and Bol¬

ton (1946) gave considerable information on the nesting habits,

habitat preferences, and parasites of M. relativa and M. inermis.

Their study was conducted in northern Saskatchewan using arti¬

ficial nesting holes bored into logs and stumps. In most respects,

the data presented by Peck and Bolton are in agreement with that

found in Wisconsin. However, they list (in Table 6) Chrysis as a

parasite of Megachilinae. Chrysis was never found to parasitize

Megachilinae in Wisconsin. All of the chrysidids which were taken

in this survey occurred as parasites in the nests of A. antilope,

R. foraminatum and Trypoxylon spp.

62 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

Hobbs and Lilly (1954) studied the distribution, abundance, and

habitat preferences of Megachilinae in Alberta but gave no infor¬

mation on nesting biology. M. brevis Say, M. relativa, and M. in¬

ermis were reported as being rare in Alberta. In Wisconsin, M. rela¬

tiva is abundant except in the southern part of the state. M. inermis

is fairly common in the north but does not occur in the south.

Manuscripts on the biology of M. relativa i and M. inermis in Wis¬

consin are now in preparation.

Michener (1953) presented a very detailed account of the biology

and ecology of M. brevis Say which is the most common Megachile

in Kansas. Only two nests of M. brevis were taken in Wisconsin.

Practically no information is available on M. mendica which is

the most abundant species in the trap-nests in southern Wisconsin.

Ancistrocerus antilope was reported by Cooper (1953) in New

York and Medler and Fye (1956) in northern Wisconsin. Both

authors used trap-nests to collect data on the nesting biology of this

wasp, but neither gave information on habitat preferences or dis¬

tribution of A. antilope.

Rau and Rau (1918) described the nest and nesting activity of

Rygchium foraminatum in natural holes in logs and hollow stems.

Apparently little is known on the distribution, abundance, or

habitat preferences of this species.

Chlorion harrisi is fairly well known. Its nesting habits were de¬

scribed by Rau (1935). It is recorded as nesting in hollow sticks

and holes in logs and using various saltatorial orthoptera for pro¬

visioning its nests. C. harrisi has not previously been studied in

Wisconsin, and some new host records were obtained.

Peckham and Peckham (1898) described the nesting habits of

Try poxy Ion rubro-cinctum and T. striatum. They record T. rubro-

cinctum as nesting in hollow straws and T. striatum from beetle

galleries in logs and posts. Our trap-nest data agree very well with

the accounts given by the Peckhams. Krombein (1954, 1956) re¬

corded T. rubro-cinctum and T. striatum in wooden block trap-nests.

Data that were obtained on the other species of insects listed in

the footnote of Table 1 were fragmentary, and further studies

should be made before details of biology, distribution, and habitat

preference are discussed.

Summary

The trap-nest method was used to determine the distribution and

abundance of bees and wasps in Wisconsin. The insects used the

hole of the trap-nest to build a linear series of cells and provision

the cells with food for their progeny.

1958] Koerbe & Medler — Solitary Bees and Wasps

68

The most common species found in the trap-nests were :

Megachiiinae — Megachile relativa Cress., M. inermis Prov., and

M. mendica Cress.

Eumeninae — Rygchium foraminatum (Sauss.) and Ancistro-

cerus antilope (Panz.)

Pepsinae — Dipogon sayi Banks

Trypoxyloninae — Trypoxylon striatum Prov., T. rubro-cinctum

Pack.

Sphecinae — Chlorion harrisi Fern.

The species were found to have certain preferences for habitats

and hole size. The distribution and abundance of some of the spe¬

cies was associated with habitats at the various trapping sites.

The trap-nest technique affords many as yet uninvestigated op¬

portunities for studying the biology, ecology, and distribution of

solitary bees and wasps. There are many species which would prob¬

ably use trap-nests made from different materials or with smaller

or larger holes. Intensive investigations are required in order to

provide needed information on species rarely encountered in nature,

and the trap-nest technique would be a valuable aid to this research.

References Cited

Cooper, K. W. 1953. The ecology, predation, nesting and competition of Ancis-

trocerus antilope (Panzer). Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc. 79:13-35.

Hobbs, G. A. and Lilly, C. E. 1954. Ecology of species of Megachile Latreille

in the mixed prairie region of southern Alberta with special reference to

pollination of alfalfa. Ecology 35:453-462.

Krombein, K. V. 1954. Wasps collect at Lost River State Park, West Virginia,

in 1953. Bui. Bklyn. Ent. Soc. 49:1-7.

- . 1955. Some notes on the wasps of Kill Devil Hills, North Carolina,

1954. Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash. 57:145-160.

- . 1956. Biological and taxonomic notes on the wasps of Lost River State

Park, West Virginia, with additions to the faunal list. Proc. Ent. Soc.

Wash. 58:153-161.

Medler, J. T. and Fye, R. E. 1956. The biology of Ancistrocerus antilope

(Panzer) in trap-nests in Wisconsin. Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer. 49:97-102.

Medler, J. T. and Koerber, T. 1957. Biology of Dipogon sayi Banks in Trap-

nests in Wisconsin. Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer. 50:621-625.

Michener, C. D. 1953. The biology of a leafcutter bee ( Megachile brevis)

and its associates. Univ. Kans. Sci. Bui. 35:1659-1745.

Peck, O. and Bolton, J. L. 1946. Alfalfa seed production in northern Sas¬

katchewan as affected by bees, with a report on means of increasing the

population of native bees. Sci. Agr. 26:387-415.

Peckham, G. W. and Peckham, E. G. 1898. The instincts and habits of the

solitary wasps. Wis. Geological and Natural History Survey Bui. No. 2.

Rau, P. and Rau, N. 1918. Wasp Studies Afield. Princeton University Press.

Rau, P., 1935. The nesting habits of solitary wasps. Bui. Bklyn. Ent. Soc.

30:65-68.

PRELIMINARY REPORTS ON THE FLORA OF WISCONSIN.

NO. 42— ROSACEAE I— ROSE FAMILY I

Harriet Gale Mason and Hugh H. Iltis

Herbarium of the University of Wisconsin

This is the first half of a treatment of the Wisconsin species of

the family Rosaceae. In this portion, certain extremely complex

genera are not treated, namely Crataegus, Rosa, Rub us, and Ame-

lanchier. It is hoped that these four genera will be discussed in the

not too distant future by specialists in each of these groups.

The distribution maps of species in Wisconsin are based on col¬

lections in the herbaria of the Universities of Wisconsin and Minne¬

sota, the Milwaukee Public Museum, and Northland College, Wis¬

consin. Small dots in Iowa County represent sight records from an

unpublished work by Iverson (1955). Other sources of information

are cited in the text. Dots indicate specific location, triangles county

records without specific locality. Numbers within the enclosures in

the lower left-hand corner of each map represent the specimens

used in this study that were flowering or fruiting in respective

months. These numbers do not include specimens in bud, very young-

fruit, or in vegetative condition. While, therefore, a small percent¬

age of collections was not counted, the total numbers give a rough

estimate of the amount of study material available for this study,

with the monthly figures giving an indication of when a species is

apt to flower or fruit in Wisconsin. Nomenclature, phyletic sequence,

and general descriptions follow generally “The New Britton and

Brown Illustrated Flora” (Gleason, 1952) and “Gray’s Manual of

Botany, ed. 8” (Fernald, 1950).

Grateful acknowledgment is due to Gerald B. Ownbey, Univer¬

sity of Minnesota, Albert M. Fuller, Milwaukee Public Museum,

Frank C. Lane, Ashland College, and Henry C. Greene, curator,

Cryptogamic Herbarium, University of Wisconsin, who were kind

enough to provide the use of their herbarium facilities for this

study; to John W. Thomson whose constructive criticism of the

final draft was exceedingly helpful ; and to Mrs. Katherine S. Snell,

herbarium assistant, for untold favors and a cheerful disposition

in the face of much adversity.

This work was supported during the school year 1957-58 and

summer session 1958 by the Research Committee of the University

of Wisconsin on funds from the Wisconsin Alumni Research Foun¬

dation. Their support is gratefully acknowledged.

65

66 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

ROSACEAE OF WISCONSIN

Annual or perennial herbs, shrubs, or trees with alternate, stipu¬

late leaves ; stipules sometimes caducous, rarely minute or wanting ;

flowers regular, perfect, perigynous or epigynous ; sepals and petals

5, stamens few to numerous, usually in multiples of 5, all inserted

at or near the margin of the hypanthium ; pistils 1-many, distinct

to united, superior to inferior; fruits pomes, achenes, follicles, or

drupes, with or without enlarged hypanthium and/or receptacle,

often subtended by a persistent calyx; embryo straight, with large

and thick cotyledons.

Key to Genera

1. Trees, shrubs, or woody vines.

2. Ovary or ovaries inferior or apparently so, in flower concealed

within the hypanthium with only the styles or the summit of

the ovary protruding; in fruit, the achenes or seeds enclosed

within the enlarged hypanthium, which usually bears the

sepals, or traces of them, at its summit.

3. Styles 2-5 ; ovary one, inferior, or ovaries 1-5, half inferior

and free at apex; fruit a pome; flowers white or pinkish;

trees or shrubs, with simple leaves (compound in Sorbus

which can be distinguished from Rosa by absence of

thorns) ; stipules deciduous.

4. Branches almost invariably thorny, the thorns long

stout modified twigs.

5. Carpels in fruit very hard and bony, seed-like, en¬

closing the seeds ; styles in flower distinct ; ovule 1 in

each cell ; spines usually polished ; bud scales fleshy,

glabrous _ 15. Crataegus.

5. Carpels in fruit cartilaginous and papery, easy to

open and to expose the seeds within ; styles in flower

connate at base; ovules 2 in each cell; spines usually

dull ; bud scales not fleshy, pubescent _ 12. Pyrus.

4. Branches not thorny.

6. Leaves odd-pinnate (deeply and irregularly lobed in

hybrid with Aronia ) ; inflorescence a large flat-

topped compound cyme, 6-20 cm. across. 14. Sorbus.

6. Leaves simple, serrate, or merely lobulate; flowers

and fruits few, in sub-umbellate or racemose inflor¬

escences, or in small irregular cymes which are usu¬

ally less than 5 cm. broad.

7. Leaves glandular along mid-rib on upper side;

flowers 0.7-1. 4 cm. broad, in irregular cymes,

panicular or corymbose in arrangement

- 13. Aronia.

1958]

Mason & litis — Wisconsin Flora. No. U'2

67

7. Leaves not glandular along the mid-rib ; flowers

1. 5-4.0 cm. broad, in racemes or umbel-like

clusters.

8. Ovary 2-5-celled ; ovules 2 in each cell ; flowers

in small umbellate clusters (never racemose)

frequently on spur branches ; visible bud scales

many, woolly ; leaves with coarse serration

_ 12. Pyrus.

8. Ovary 6-10-celled by intrusion of a false sep¬

tum ; ovule 1 in each cell ; flowers usually in

racemes (clusters only in 1 species) at end of

seasons growth ; visible bud scales only 2, glab¬

rous ; leaves with fine serration

_ 16. Amelanchier.

3. Styles numerous ; ovaries apparently inferior, numerous,

inserted on the bottom and sides of hypanthium; fruit

of bony achenes inside a fleshy hypanthium ; flowers white,

yellow or pink ; usually thorny shrubs with pinnate leaves ;

stipules usually adnate to the petiole for more than half

their length, persistent _ 10. Rosa.

2. Ovary or ovaries (carpels) superior or apparently so; hypan¬

thium in flower saucer-shaped to hemispheric, in fruit com¬

monly subtended by remnants of calyx and in some genera

more or less concealed by the incurved persistent calyx-lobes.

9. Ovary 1 ; fruit a single, juicy, indehiscent drupe, 5-25 mm.

in diam. ; calyx deciduous, or in one species persistent ;

leaves simple, usually with glands on petiole 11. Primus.

9. Ovaries 2-many; fruit achenes, druplets or follicles, de¬

hiscent or indehiscent, 2-5 mm. in diam. ; calyx persistent

in fruit; leaves simple or compound, without petiolar

glands.

10. Ovaries 2-5; fruit a dehiscent, nearly free follicle;

leaves simple.

11. Stipules or stipular scars present; leaves more or

less lobed, palmately veined ; mature carpels in¬

flated, bladdery, splitting into 2 separate valves;

seeds plump with crustaceous testa ; stamineal disk

wanting _ 1. Physocarpus.

11. Stipules none; leaves entire or serrate, pinnately-

veined ; carpels not inflated, splitting on one side ;

seeds slender, with loose tests ; staminal disk pres¬

ent _ 2. Spiraea.

10. Ovaries many; fruits indehiscent drupes or achenes,

inserted on convex to conic receptacle ; leaves com¬

pound (except in some species of Rubus) .

68 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

12. Bractlets 5, alternating with the calyx-lobes ; calyx-

lobes accrescent and enclosing fruits ; achenes dry,

on a mostly pubescent or hairy receptacle ; flowers

white, yellow or dark purple; plants never with

prickles _ 6. Potentilla.

12. Bractlets none; calyx-lobes neither accrescent nor

enclosing fruits; fruits fleshy druplets falling as a

unit with or without spongy receptacle ; flowers

white, pinkish or rose-purple; plants often with

straight or hooked prickles _ 8. Rubus.

1. Herbaceous plants (a few species, otherwise herbaceous, may

have the basal leaves borne on a woody caudex).

13. Ovaries 2-6; fruits follicles, or achenes enclosed by an hy-

panthium (covered with hooked bristles in Agrimonia) .

14. Leaves 3-foliolate, basal; fruit achenes enclosed within

a membranous hypanthium ; flowers yellow.

_ 5. Waldsteinia.

14. Leaves pinnate, 5-13-foliolate, cauline and basal ; fruit

bristly or a thin-walled follicle ; flowers white or yellow.

15. Shrubby herbs, 1-2 m. tall; flowers in a large pan¬

icle 1-3 dm. long ; bracts or bractlets none ; petals

white; calyx-lobes soon reflexed; fruit a thin-walled

follicle, dehiscent on both the ventral and dorsal

sutures _ 3. Sorbaria.

15. Perennial herbs to 1.5 m. tall; flowers in long inter¬

rupted spike-like racemes, the short peduncles sub¬

tended by laciniate bracts, the very short pedicels by

a pair of 3-lobed bractlets ; petals yellow ; hypan¬

thium indurate and 10-grooved at maturity, armed

with hooked bristles ; calyx-lobes connivent toward

the summit forming a beak on the fruit; fruits

achenes _ 9. Agrimonia.

13. Ovaries numerous; in fruit achenes or drupes in a head or

inserted on a convex to conic receptacle (sometimes fleshy).

16. Leaves simple, or palmately 3-5-foliolate.

17. Plants usually prickly; fruit a head of pulpy juicy

drupes ; flowers without bractlets ; leaves simple or

usually palmate _ 8. Rubus.

17. Plants not prickly; fruits dry achenes (on pulpy re¬

ceptacle in Frag aria) ; leaves compound.

18. Receptacle enlarged in fruit and conical, becom¬

ing pulpy and usually scarlet; leaves 3-foliolate,

all basal; plants rarely more than 20-25 cm.

tall, spreading by runners _ 4. F rag aria.

1958J

Mason & litis — Wisconsin Flora. No. U2

69

18. Receptacle dry and pubescent in fruit; leaves

3-5-foliolate, basal and/or cauline ; plants rarely

less than 3 dm. tall, if so, leaflets with only 3

teeth at apex or white-tomentose beneath ; only

a few species spreading by runners 6. Potentilla.

16. Leaves pinnate, with up to 20 leaflets.

19. Styles filiform, at maturity either greatly elongating

and conspicuously hooked after terminal joint has

fallen, or plumose ; calyx-lobes commonly reflexed at

maturity; leaflets very irregular in size and shape

- 7. Geum.

19. Styles short and inconspicuous, at maturity not

greatly elongated, often deciduous ; calyx-lobes

ascending and enclosing head of achenes; leaflets

uniform in shape _ 6. Potentilla.

1. PHYSOCARPUS Maxim. Ninebark.

1. P. OPULIFOLIUS (L.) Maxim. Maps 1, 2.

Shrub 1-3 m. high, the old bark loose and separating into numer¬

ous thin layers ; leaves simple, ovate to obovate, 3-lobed, irregularly

serrate ; flowers in umbel-like corymbs ; hypanthium shallowly cup¬

shaped; calyx 5-lobed, glabrous to tomentose, persistent in fruit;

petals 5, white ; stamens 30-40 ; pistils 1-5, inflated into 2-valved

follicles in fruit; follicles pale brown, glabrous, or in var. inter¬

medins (Rydb.) Robins, permanently pubescent; ovules 2-4; seeds

shiny, hard, with endosperm.

Common over the state from very dry to very wet, usually open

habitats, in woods of maple or oak, limestone bluffs, sandstone cliffs,

prairies with limestone out-crops, rocky goat prairies, roadsides,

river banks, sandy shores, sedge meadows, bogs and marshes. Flow¬

ers last of May through July.

Map 1 shows the distribution of all collections, map 2 the distri¬

bution of all specimens that had mature fruits and that could be

scored as to pubescence extremes. It is evident that completely

glabrous fruited plants (map 2) are more common in the northern

part of Wisconsin than those with sparsely to densely pubescent

fruits.

2. SPIRAEA L. Spiraea.

Shrubs with simple leaves; flowers white, rose, or dark pink, in

elongate panicles (corymbs in introduced species) ; hypanthium

cup-shaped; calyx 5-cleft, persistent; petals 5; stamens 10-50; pis¬

tils commonly 5, alternate with calyx-lobes ; follicles 3-5, firm in

texture, dehiscent along 1 suture; seeds linear, with a thin or loose

coat.

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

[Vol. 47

1958]

Mason & litis — Wisconsin Flora. No. U2

71

1. Leaves green on both sides ; flowers white, 5-8 mm. wide ; follicles

glabrous ; calyx-lobes spreading ; hypanthium finely pubescent to

glabrous _ 1. S. alba.

1. Leaves densely white to brown tomentose beneath; flowers pink

or rose, rarely white, 2-4 mm. wide; follicles pubescent; calyx-

lobes reflexed ; hypanthium densly tomentose _ 2. S. tomentose.

1. S. alba DuRoi. Meadow-sweet. Map 3, 4.

Erect shrub, with slender brown twigs ; leaves narrowly to

broadly oblanceolate, 3-6 cm. long, finely and sharply serrate, glab¬

rous or nearly so; inflorescence, hypanthium and calyx-lobes finely

pubescent; flowers 5-8 mm. wide, white; follicles glabrous.

Common over the state in wet habitats : sandy and boggy shores,

low meadows, sedge marshes, bogs, swamps, woods, roadsides, as

well as sand barrens, prairies, and along railroads. Flowering mid-

June through September.

Agnes Kugel, University of Michigan (personal communication),

found that, while true S. latifolia (Ait.) Borkh. does not occur in

Wisconsin, many of the Wisconsin collections did show indication of

introgression by S. latifolia’, namely, they have leaves that are

broader and more obovate, and with deeper more irregular serra¬

tions than typical S. alba, and have reddish to purplish-brown

twigs. Map 4 shows those plants of the S. alba-S. latifolia complex

varying only slightly towards S', latifolia (dots), as well as those

that are intermediate in one to several characters (crosses).

S. Vanhouttei (Briot) Zab. Bridal Wreath.

Of hybrid origin, commonly planted in southern Wisconsin and

an occasional escape. It has white flowers in umbellate corymbs,

densely arranged on the branches.

2. S. Tomentosa L. var. rosea (Raf.) Fern. Hardhack; Steeple-

bush. See Salamun (1951). Map 5.

Shrub; leaves ovate, oblong to lanceolate, 3-5 cm. long, irregu¬

larly serrate, densely tomentose and pronouncedly veined beneath;

inflorescence, hypanthium, and sepals tomentose; flowers 2-4 mm.

wide, pink or rose, rarely white ; follicles pubescent to glabrate.

Common over the state on sandy, grassy and rocky shores, low

and sedge meadows, heath marshes, swampy ground, abandoned

fields and roadsides. Flowering all summer.

3. SORBARIA R. Br. False Spiraea.

1. S. SORBIFOLIA (L.) A. Br. Map 6.

Nearly herbaceous shrub, the younger parts covered with a floc-

culent, deciduous stellate tomentum; leaves stipulate, 1-4 dm. loiig,

pinnate, 1 3-21 -foliolate, the leaflets lance-oblong, sessile, sharply

72 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and, Letters [Vol. 47

serrate ; inflorescence a pyramidal terminal panicle with small flow¬

ers; petals 5, 2-3 mm. long, white; pistils 5, opposite sepals; fruit a

thin-walled follicle, dehiscent on both dorsal and ventral sutures.

Native of Asia, cultivated and occasionally escaped. Flowering

June and July.

4. FRAGARIA L. Strawberry.

Perennial herbs, usually spreading by runners; leaves basal,

3-foliolate, serrate; peduncles scape-like, bearing few to several

flowers ; hypanthium saucer-shaped ; sepals 5, with 5 alternating

bracts ; petals 5, white ; stamens numerous, sometimes abortive, the

filaments short, dialated at base; pistils numerous, the styles

slender, inserted laterally on the ovary; receptacle in fruit much

enlarged, becoming pulpy, usually scarlet, bearing the minute dry

achenes scattered over or slightly imbedded in its surface.

1. Leaf-teeth ascending, the terminal one commonly smaller than

the lateral ones; inflorescence with ( 1—) 3—1 8 flowers, umbelli-

form or a rounded to flattish cyme with subequal primary

branches, usually shorter than the leaves even at maturity;

calyx-lobes appressed or connivent about the young fruit;

achenes set in pits on mature receptacle; petals 4-10 mm. long

_ 1. F. virginiana.

1. Leaf-teeth sharply divergent, the terminal one commonly pro¬

jecting beyond the adjacent lateral ones; inflorescence with 1-4

(-7) flowers, soon racemose or irregularly racemiform, the pri¬

mary branches of cyme quite unequal, the leading one prolonged

as the axis of a raceme, at maturity usually rising above the

leaves ; calyx-lobes loosely spreading or reflexed about the young

fruit; achenes superficial on the mature receptacle; petals 3-7

mm. long _ 2. F. vesca.

1. F. virginiana Duchesne. Strawberry. Map 7.

Leaflets thin, with more or less ascending, less divergent teeth

than those in F. vesca ; flowers on pedicels of approximately uni¬

form length, forming a corymbiform cluster usually shorter than

the leaves at maturity ; calyx-lobes appressed about young fruit ;

petals 3-10 mm. long, white or pink (forma mail flora Haynie) ;

fruit subglobose to ovoid, juicy; achenes in pits.

According to Gleason there are 5 varieties, 2 of which grow in

Wisconsin. “Var. virginiana. Pubescence of the peduncle spreading;

inflorescence 1-2 m. tall; fruit broadly ovoid to subglobose. Dry

upland woods, rarely on prairies,” and var. illinoensis (Prince)

Gray. “Pubescence of the pedicels copious, widely spreading. . . .

Dry upland woods and prairies . . . intergrading with var. vir-

1958]

Mason & litis — Wisconsin Flora. No. U2

73

giniana. . . .” These, as the varieties of F. vesca, are difficult to tell,

and have not been mapped separately.

Very common in Wisconsin in oak, poplar, maple, basswood,

beech, hemlock, elm, spruce, red and white pine woods, also wooded

riverbanks, meadows, roadsides, railroads, sphagnum bog with

Larix, black spruce, balsam fir, white cedar, sand beaches, lime¬

stone cliffs, “goat prairies”, old fields, and marshes. Flowers end of

April through June.

2. F. vesca L. Woodland Strawberry. Map 8.

Leaflets nearly or quite sessile, ovate to obovate, the teeth sharp

and rather divergent; peduncles at anthesis usually shorter than

the leaves, exceeding them at maturity; calyx-lobes spreading, re¬

flexed about fruit; petals 3-7 mm. long, white or pink in forma

rosea Rostrup; fruit red, or yellowish-white in forma alba (Ehrh.)

Rydb., rather dry; achenes superficial.

Gleason recognizes two varieties, both growing in Wisconsin:

“var. vesca. Petioles and peduncles more or less villous with spread¬

ing or somewhat reflexed hairs ; fruit commonly ovoid to sub-

globose. Along roadsides in fields and upland woods,” “var. ameri-

cana Porter. Petiole and peduncles thinly pubescent with ascending

hairs; fruit commonly slenderly ovoid or ellipsoid. Cool woods,”

These varieties are difficult to tell and have not been mapped

separately.

Found over the state in a great variety of woods of oak, pine,

juniper, hemlock-maple-elm, birch, basswood-maple-elm-birch,

beech-hemlock-pine-aspen, also pastures, rock ledges and wet mead¬

ows. Flowers May and June.

5. WALDSTEINIA Willd. Barren Strawberry.

1. W. fragarioides (Michx.) Tratt. Map 9.

Perennial rhizomatous herb, with the aspect of Fragaria, but

with the 3 leaflets broadly cuneate-obovate, serrate with numerous

broad teeth and commonly shallowly and irregularly lobed, the lat¬

eral leaflets asymmetrical ; scapes several-flowered, the cyme-axis

often elongating after anthesis and the cluster becoming racemi-

form ; hypanthium obconic with mouth contracted by a conspicuous

disk; calyx-lobes 5, the minute bractlets deciduous; petals 5, yel¬

low, 5-10 mm. long; stamens numerous, persistent after anthesis;

pistils 2-6, inserted on a hairy receptacle; styles terminal, soon

deciduous ; ovule 1 ; fruit an achene.

Rare, found only in the northern part of state, in coniferous,

dry or moist wooded habitats as jack, white, or red pine, hemlock-

sugar maple, birch, poplar. Flowers May through July.

74 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

1958] Mason & litis— Wisconsin Flora. No. U2 75

6. POTENTILLA L. Cinquefoil ; Five-Finger.

Herbs or small shrubs ; leaves compound, stipulate ; hypanthium

saucer-shaped to hemispheric; calyx-lobes 5, alternating with 5

bractlets ; petals 5, white, yellow or purple ; stamens 5-many, com¬

monly 20, inserted on margin or inner surface of the hypanthium ;

pistils commonly numerous, rarely as few as 10; styles slender, ter¬

minal to nearly basal, articulated with the ovary and easily de¬

tached at maturity; fruit (achenes) usually enclosed by calyx.

1. Corolla dark reddish-purple, 10-25 mm. wide; calyx-lobes twice

as long as petals ; leaves pinnate ; leaflets 5-7, sharply serrate,

3-9 cm. long; wet boggy habitats _ 1. P. palustris.

1. Corolla white to yellow.

2. Principal leaves below inflorescence 3-foliolate.

3. Flowers white, 6-10 mm. wide; leaflets narrow, cuneate,

3-toothed at apex, otherwise entire; low suffrutescent

perennials, usually less than 3 dm. tall _ 2. P. tridentata.

3. Flowers yellow, 5-15 (-20) mm. wide; leaflets oblanceolate

to obovate, crenately toothed nearly to base ; erect annuals,

often more than 3 dm. tall _ 3. P. norvegica.

2. Principal leaves below inflorescence 5-20-foliolate ; peren¬

nials.

4. Leaves digitately (palmately) compound, leaflets 5-7;

flowers yellow.

5. Plants weak, with long, slender stolons, these often root¬

ing at the nodes ; flowers 10-15 mm. wide, solitary on

naked peduncles from stem-nodes; leaflets sparsely

strigose or sericeous, green beneath _ 4. P. simplex.

5. Plants erect, not rooting at the nodes; flowers several

to many, in terminal cymose inflorescences.

6. Leaflets white-tomentose beneath, 1-3 cm. long ; flow¬

ers 6-10 mm. wide _ 5. P. argentea.

6. Leaflets green on both sides, 4-9 cm. long; flowers

10-25 mm. wide _ 6. P. recta.

4. Leaves pinnately compound, leaflets 5-20 ; flowers white to

yellow.

7. Small, woody, twiggy shrubs; flowers yellow, 10-22 mm.

wide; leaflets 5-7, entire, about 1-2 cm. long

_ 7. P. fruticosa.

7. Herbaceous perennials, rarely woody at base; leaflets

toothed.

8. Leaflets 15-20, densely white-tomentose beneath;

flowers 15-25 (-30) mm. wide; low plants with long-

stolons, of moist, sandy habitats _ 8. P. anserina.

76 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

8. Leaflets 5-11, densely glandular-villous, but green on

both sides; flowers white to pale yellow, 12-20 (-25)

mm. wide; erect, strict plants of dry prairies

_ 9. P. arguta.

1. P. palustris (L.) Scop. Marsh-five-finger. Map 10.

Comarum palustre L.

Rather robust ascending or decumbent perennial from semi-

woody reddish-brown rhizomes 2-6 dm. long; leaves pinnate; leaf¬

lets 5-7, glabrous to densely sericeous ; inflorescence leafy ; flowers

red-purple, 10-20 mm. wide, the calyx-lobes twice as long as petals ;

achenes smooth ; upper part of stem strigose and obscurely glandu¬

lar to villous and densely glandular; the latter, when coupled with

sericeous leaves, has been called var. villosa (Pers.) Lehm.

Locally over the state except in the extreme southwest, in wet

ground or shallow standing water, along lakes and rivers, sandy

or muddy shores, swamps, marshes, and in sphagnum bogs. Flow¬

ering June and July, fruiting July to October.

2. P. tridentata Soland. Three-toothed Cinquefoil Map 11.

Perennial, with long prostrate stems woody at base; leaves

mostly basal, digitate ; leaflets 3, cuneate, 3-toothed at summit ; flow¬

ers white, 6-10 mm. across, several in a flattened cyme ; achenes

villous.

A northern species, reaching its southern limit in Wisconsin,

where rather rare on open sandy ground as shores and beaches,

roadsides, prairies, woods (jack pine), railroads, and sandstone

ledges. The distribution of the species (map 11) is similar to that

shown on any map showing sandy soil in Wisconsin. Flowering May

through June.

3. P. NORVEGICA L. Map 12.

Slender to stout, leafy and commonly much branched stems with

hirsute and spreading hairs; leaves 3-foliolate, the leaflets up to 8

cm. long, coarsely serrate; flowers yellow, 5-15 mm. wide, the petals

shorter than calyx-lobes ; mature achenes flattened, with curved

longitudinal ridges.

Var. hirsuta (Michx.) T. & G. has been used to designate native

plants. All those in Wisconsin seem to be of this variety which, when

recognized as a distinct species, has been called P. monspeliensis L.

Very common throughout, in a variety of waste or disturbed

habitats, as roadsides, railroad embankments, pastures, hillsides,

woods, dry fields, creek banks, sand bars, lake shores, sedge mead¬

ows and edges of bogs ; flowers June through September.

1958]

Mason & litis — Wisconsin Flora. No. U2

77

P. intermedia L. can be distinguished from P. norvegica by its

primary leaves with 5 instead of 3 leaflets (cf. notes under

P. recta) .

P. rivalis Nutt, is reported for Wisconsin by Fernald, though no

specimens were seen by the author. Mature achenes are smooth

rather than ridged as in P. norvegica.

4. P. simplex Michx. Old-field Cinquefoil. Map 13.

Stems erect or ascending, soon becoming prostrate; leaves pal¬

mate, leaflets 5; flowers yellow, solitary from most well-developed

internodes, 10-16 mm. wide. Plants with stem, petioles, etc. glab¬

rous or appressed-strigose have been called var. calvescens Fern.,

and occur scattered throughout Wisconsin.

Common over the state, especially in the southern half, on

prairies, roadsides, railroad right-of-ways, open abandoned sandy

fields, pine, oak and maple woods, hills and bluffs. Flowering May

through June, fruiting June through August.

The eastern P. canadensis L., with which this species is often con¬

fused, does not grow in Wisconsin, though Rydberg (1908) reports

it from here.

5. P. argentea L. Silvery Cinquefoil. Map 14.

Perennial, woody at base with several to many depressed or

ascending stems ; leaves digitate, with 5-6 leaflets, white-tomentose

beneath, cuneate, with 2-4 deeply incised linear teeth above the

middle, margins re volute; flowers yellow to pale yellow, 7-10 mm.

wide; petals shorter and often hidden by calyx; achenes nearly

smooth.

Introduced from Europe and now common in dry disturbed

habitats : roadsides, stream banks, lake shores, open, abandoned

fields, pastures, dry sandy prairies, and thinly wooded areas. Flow¬

ers and fruits all summer.

6. P. recta L. Map 15.

Perennial with erect stems, simple to inflorescence; leaves pal¬

mate; leaflets 5-7, hirsute on both sides; inflorescence flattened,

the many showy yellow flowers 10-25 mm. across; mature calyx

0.8-1. 5 cm. high, with long stiff divergent hairs; mature achenes

with curved ridges.

Native of Europe, in Wisconsin in the southern % of the state,

in dry and sterile soil of roadsides, railroad yards, field, wooded

and grassy areas; flowers from June to October.

P. flabelliformis Lehm. is similar to P. recta but has smooth

achenes and appressed or strongly ascending finer petiole hairs.

Native farther west, occasionally in Minnesota and Keweenaw

78 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

POTENTILLA ,

, SIMPLEX

POTENTILLA

[ ARGENTEA

MVftUO

POTENTILLA

! ' RECTA

POTENTILLA

n | F RUT I COS A

.. n

POTENTILLA ^

S ANSERINA

~1 + FORMA SERICEA

• TYPICAL

POTENTILLA

ARGUTA

1958J

Mason & litis — Wisconsin Flora. No. 1+2

79

Point, Michigan, in Wisconsin collected by C. Goessl : “Sept. 27,

1915 Rib Lake, Taylor Co., along a R. R.” (WIS) and “Aug. 2, 1915

Prentice, Price Co., a colony on R. R. land, from 1-3 tall” (MIL).

Both collections were identified by D. D. Keck (1958) .

P. intermedia L. is similar to P. recta but with a much branched

inflorescence; smaller flowers (8-10 mm. broad) ; finely appressed-

villous mature calyx only 5-8 mm. high, and 5, rarely 7, leaflets

gray villous to minutely tomentose beneath. Introduced from

Europe, and reported as far west as Michigan, it has been collected

once in Wisconsin by C. Goessl, “Sandy waste place, large colony,

Aug. 26 and Aug. 30, 1916, Marinette, Marinette Co.”

7. P. fruticosa L. Shrubby Cinquefoil; Golden Hardhack. Map 16.

Low shrub with shredding brown bark ; leaves pinnate ; leaflets

5-7, usually less than 5 mm. wide, entire, the terminal 3 often con¬

fluent at the base; flowers solitary or few, bright yellow, 10-25

mm. wide; achenes villous. Variable, especially in pubescence; our

only truly woody species.

Locally in southeast (4 of state, rare elsewhere, in wet places as

sedge meadows, bogs, swamps, marshes, along creeks, lakes, and on

edges of cliffs ; flowering June to September.

8. P. ANSERINA L. Silverweed; Argentine. Map 17.

Perennial with long slender stolons, rooting at the nodes ; leaves

from a basal rosette, pinnate; leaflets 11-23 white-silky tomentose

beneath; flowers yellow, 15-25 mm. wide, solitary on long naked

peduncles; achenes furrowed.

The upper side of the leaflets may vary from glabrous to more

or less sericeous (in forma sericea (Hayne) Hayek). According to

Gleason (1952) pubescence is apparently correlated with dry en¬

vironment. In Wisconsin both forms are about equally common

often occurring together and with intermediate types. Even on the

same plant the mature leaves may be glabrous while the young

ones, especially those on the stolons, may be strongly sericeous.

On moist to wet sandy and pebbly lake or river shores, especially

common on Lake Michigan, occasionally in waste places, railroad

embankments, and in damp woods; flowering and fruiting June

through September.

9. P. ARGUTA Pursh. Tall Cinquefoil. Map 18.

Coarse, visid-pubescent perennial with stout rhizome; stem usu¬

ally one, erect, strict, unbranced to inflorescence ; leaves pinnate ;

leaflets 5-11, oblanceolate to obovate, serrate; flowers white to pale

yellow, 10-20 (-25) mm. wide, the inflorescence crowded; calyx-

lobes as long as or shorter than the petals ; achenes finely striate.

80 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

Common on dry, open ground, in low, mesic, and sand prairies,

especially common on the high lime “goat prairies’’ (Curtis and

Greene, 1949), pastures, and often on bluffs (granite or limestone

outcrops), open woods, and along roadsides and R. R. right-of-

ways. Flowers June through August.

F1LIPENDULA Adans.

1. F. rubra (Hill) Robins. Queen-of-the-Prairie.

Has been collected once by an unknown collector (J. T. Hale?) in

August 1865, at Mazomanie, Dane County (Wisconsin). Whether

this specimen was cultivated or native is not known. Since this is

an exceedingly well collected area, the lack of further collections

would seem to indicate that this plant was cultivated.

7. GEUM L. Avens.

Perennial rhizomatous herbs ; foliage variable, the lower leaves

pinnate, the cauline smaller, commonly trifoliolate, the upper often

simple; bractlets present in most species, linear-oblong; petals

elliptic to obovate, shorter or longer than calyx-lobes, white, yellow

sometimes suffused with red; stamens 10-many; ovaries numerous

on an elongate cylindric receptacle; styles filiform; fruit an

achene; upper portion of the long, usually jointed, persistent style

often deciduous.

1. Fruiting style essentially straight, not obviously jointed or

hooked, 4-9 cm. long, conspicuously plumose, the achenes dis¬

persed by wind; bractlets linear 10-15 mm. long, the shorter

calyx-lobes 7-10 mm. long; petals yellow, sometimes purplish;

plants usually 15-40 cm. tall, of open, sandy areas

_ 1. G. triflorum.

1. Fruiting style jointed above the middle, the terminal portion

readily detached, the basal portion hooked at tip, less than 1 cm.

long, plumose to glabrous, the achenes dispersed as “stick-

tights” ; bractlets lanceolate to deltoid, 2-4 mm. long, shorter

than the 2-8 mm. long calyx-lobes ; petals yellow or white ; plants

generally over 45 cm. tall, of mesic to moist habitats.

2. Flowers nodding at anthesis; calyx purple, its lobes 6-10 mm.

long; petals yellow with purple veins, obcordate, 6-10 mm.

long; head of mature fruit raised above calyx on a distinct

stalk (gynophore) 5-8 mm. long _ 2. G. rivale.

2. Flowers erect at anthesis ; calyx green, its lobes 3-8 mm. long ;

petals yellow or white, oblong to suborbicular ; head of mature

fruit sessile.

1958]

Mason & litis — Wisconsin Flora. No. U2

81

3. Styles glabrous or pubescent, never glandular ; petals white

to yellow, longer to shorter than calyx; denuded fruiting

receptacle glabrous or pubescent.

4. Denuded receptacle glabrous or essentially so ; pedicel

usually copiously pubescent to the naked eye, the hairs

all long; petals white (yellowish when dry), 3-5 mm.

long, equal to or shorter than the calyx (5-8 mm.)

_ 3. G. laciniabum.

4. Denuded receptacle pubescent; pedicel sparsely pubes¬

cent to the naked eye, the pubescence of many short

and scattered long hairs (under 10X) ; petals white to

yellow, equal to or longer than the calyx.

5. Petals white, oblong, 5-8 mm. long, 2-4 mm. wide;

calyx-lobes 3-6 mm. long; head of mature fruits

subglobose, 5-10 mm. long; achenes few, 30-80

_ 4. G. canaclense.

5. Petals yellow, suborbicular to broadly obovate, 4-8

mm. long, 4-8 mm. wide; calyx-lobes 4-8 mm. long;

head of mature fruits obovoid, 15-20 mm. long;

achenes many, 130-200 _ 5. G. aleppicum.

3. Style minutely glandular-pubescent; petals yellow, some¬

what exceeding calyx-lobes ; denuded fruiting receptacle

glabrous to short hispid; rare, in northern-most Wiscon¬

sin _ 6. G. macrophyllum.

1. G. triflorum Pursh. Prairie Smoke. Map 19.

Stems 1-5 dm. tall, pubescent throughout; basal leaves ca. 1-2

dm. long, pinnate, the leaflets 7-17, irregularly laciniate or lobed,

the terminal leaflet similar and scarcely larger; cauline leaves few,

very small, laciniate; flowers nodding; calyx-lobes red-purple, 7-10

mm. long, shorter than the linear 10-15 mm. long bractlets; petals

yellow, suffused with purplish-red, 8-12 mm. long; fruiting styles

4-9 cm. long, plumose except the very tip ; fruiting heads erect.

Common over lower half of state on dry hillside prairies, jack

pine barrens, sandy prairie relicts, open sandy ridges and bluffs of

exposed sandstone, on poor dry soil of roadsides, open fields, and

pastures, occasionally on moist meadows and marshes. Flowering

April through June.

2. G. rivale L. Water-; Purple Avens. Map 20.

Stems 3-7 dm. tall, sparsely hirsute ; basal leaves to 4 dm. long,

the principal leaflets 1-3 (-5), serrate, more or less 3-lobed, the

lateral ones few to many, much smaller; cauline leaves always much

smaller, gradually reduced above, variously toothed and lobed or

82 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

1958]

Mason & litis — Wisconsin Flora. No. 1+2

88

divided ; flowers nodding ; sepals purple ascending triangular, en¬

larging after anthesis, 7-10 mm. long; bractlets linear, 3-4 mm.

long; petals yellowish, purple-veined, 6-10 mm. long, rounded to

truncate, usually shorter than the calyx-lobes; mature aehenes and

persistent lower half of styles hirsute ; styles recurved ; achene head

elevated above calyx on a 5-8 mm. long stalk (gynophore).

In the northern % of the state and along Lake Michigan, in Alnus

or Thuja swamp woods, sphagnum bogs with tamarack and black

spruce, marshy meadows, moist ground of lake shores and borders

of marshes. Flowering end of May through first of July.

8. G. laciniatum Murr. Map 21.

Stem 4-10 dm. tall, hirsute with mostly reflexed hairs; basal

leaves long-petioled, with a large simple rounded terminal leaflet

or with several deeply incised pinnate leaflets ; cauline leaves sim¬

ple, lobed or 3-parted, strongly toothed or incised; petals white,

3-5 mm. long, equal to or shorter than the 5-8 mm. long calyx-

lobes; head of aehenes subglobose, 12-20 mm. long; receptacle glab¬

rous or with few bristles; aehenes (excluding style) 3-5 mm. long,

glabrous, or in var. trichocarpum Fern, sparsely hirsute. All Wis¬

consin plants are of this variety.

Locally over the state in rich deciduous woods, moist prairies,

wet meadows, mud banks of rivers and streams, bogs, marshes and

swamps. Flowering late May through June.

4. G. CANADENSE Jacq. Map 22.

Stems slender, 4-9 dm. tall, glabrescent to sparsely pubescent be¬

low, minutely but densely velvety puberulent above, the pedicels in

addition often with a few scattered elongate hairs; basal leaves

long-petioled, usually 3-foliolate, with oblong-lanceolate to rhombic,

serrate to incised leaflets, the cauline leaves mostly simple, sub-

sessile, lanceolate; petals white, 5-8 mm. long, about as long as the

3-6 mm. long calyx-lobes or distinctly exceeding them; head of

aehenes subglobose, 10-15 mm. in cliam. ; receptacle densely bristly,

the hairs protruding among the ovaries at anthesis, but shorter

than mature aehenes; mature aehenes (excluding style) 2. 5-3. 5

mm. long.

Fernald’s (1950) 4 varieties and 2 forms are “based on the kind

and amount of pubescence on the style, sepals, and pedicels and the

number of aehenes, and (are) scarcely worthy of taxonomic recog¬

nition.” (Gleason, 1952)

Over the state in dry or wet, open or dense deciduous woods, of

oak, hickory, maple, basswood, elm, hemlock or aspen, in low wet

boggy soils, pastures, sedge meadows, swamps, edges of bogs, and

ravines. Flowering late May through July.

84 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

5. G. aleppicum Jacq. Map 23.

Stems robust, 5-13 dm. tall, very hirsute, especially below; leaves

variable, the basal ones with a large, rounded or variously divided

terminal leaflet and/or with up to 5-9 incised obovate or oblanceo-

late leaflets ; cauline leaves with 3-5 acute, mostly incised to deeply

cut rhombic-ovate to oblong leaflets ; petals yellow, 4-8 mm. long,

as long as or longer than calyx-lobes; fruiting heads obovoid, 15-20

mm. long; achenes ca. 130-190, hispid, 2-4 mm. long (excluding the

style) , the receptacle pubescent with short hairs.

Our plants, to distinguish them from the European ones, are

referred to as var. strictum (Ait.) Fern.

Common over the state, usually in damp or wet places, either in

the open or in woods, often in marshes, sedge-grass and haying

meadows, low prairies, alder swamps, as well as in mixed woods of

maple-basswood-hemlock-elm, aspen, birch, arbor vitae-balsam fir,

etc., on roadsides and railroads. Flowering July to first part of

August.

6. G. MACROPHYLLUM Willd.

Terminal segment of the basal leaves rotund to reniform in out¬

line, cordate, much larger than the lateral segments ; petals yellow,

somewhat exceeding calyx-lobes ; denuded receptacle glabrous or

merely short-hispid ; basal segment of style minutely glandular.

A rare northern species; the sole Wisconsin collection (“moist

ground (sect. 22, T. 42 N., R. 11 W.) Washburn county, Chittamo,

June 20, 1929 N. C. Fassett, #8661”) can be referred to as var.

perincisum (Rydb.) Raup.

8. RUBUS L. Bramble, Raspberry, Blackberry.

(THIS GENUS NOT TREATED TO SPECIES)

Perennial, semi-woody herbs or shrubs, often prickly ; leaves sim¬

ple or more often palmately compound, serrate or lobed ; flowers

perfect or unisexual ; hypanthium small, flat to hemispheric ; sepals

5; petals mostly 5, white, pinkish or purple; stamens numerous;

pistils numerous on convex to conic receptacle; fruit a cluster of

druplets, falling with the enlarged receptacle in the Blackberries

and Dewberries, and without it in the Raspberries.

9. AGRIMONIA L. Agrimony.

Perennial herbs, with interruptedly pinnate leaves ; stipules folia-

ceous ; flowers in long, interrupted spike-like racemes ; peduncles

subtended by a laciniate bract, pedicels by a pair of 3-cleft bract-

lets ; calyx-lobes 5, spreading at anthesis, later forming a beak over

the fruit; petals 5, yellow; stamens 5-15; styles terminal; pistils 2,

1958] Mason & litis — Wisconsin Flora. No. U2 85

concealed within hypanthium, which, covered by indurate bristles,

in fruit falls as a unit, enclosing the 2 achenes.

1. Axis of inflorescence conspicuously glandular with very few long-

scattered hairs; hypanthium usually without minute strigose

hairs in furrows; bristles of mature fruit in several rows, widely

spreading _ 1. A. gryposepala.

1. Axis of inflorescence not glandular but hairy; hypanthium with

minute strigose hairs in furrows; bristles of mature fruit in one

row, more or less ascending.

2. Leaflets conspicuously glandular beneath, with few hairs on

veins; mature fruits 6-8 mm. long; roots fibrous

_ 2. A. striata.

2. Leaflets not conspicuously glandular beneath, densely pubes¬

cent; mature fruits 3-5 mm. long; roots tuberously thickened

_ 3. A. pubescens.

1. A. GRYPOSEPALA Wallr. Map 24.

Roots fibrous; stem stout 3-15 dm. tall, spreading hirsute; leaves

pinnate, the larger leaves with 5-9 leaflets, ovate-lanceolate to obo-

vate, coarsely serrate, glabrous or nearly so above, and beneath

except sparsely hirsute on veins, conspicuously glandular-dotted ; in¬

florescence axis minutely glandular, with remote, long, divergent

hairs intermixed ; fruiting hypanthium and calyx 6-9 mm. long,

the bristles widely spreading and in several rows, the lower row

often reflexed over the hypanthium.

Common throughout the state in deciduous woods of maple, bass¬

wood, etc. ; also in bottom land pastured woods, on wooded bluffs,

roadsides and pastures. Flowers July and August.

A. parviflora Ait. has not been found in Wisconsin but grows in

northern Illinois. It differs from A. gryposepala by having stems

densely and divergently long-hirsute or villous, by larger leaves

with 11-23 principal leaflets, which are finely to softly pubescent

beneath, and by the outer bristles of fruit being much shorter than

the inner, spreading but ascending ones.

2. A. STRIATA Michx. Map 25.

Roots fibrous; stems 3-12 dm. tall, hirsute below, pubescent and

slightly glandular above; principal leaflets of larger leaves 7-11,

ovate-lanceolate, coarsely serrate, glabrous or nearly so above,

beneath sparsely pubescent especially on veins, conspicuously

glandular-dotted; axis eglandular-pubescent, the hairs ascending,

some long fiexuous ; mature hypanthium and calyx 5-8 mm. long,

reflexed, minutely strigose in furrows, the bristles ascending.

Common in northern Wisconsin, in borders of woods of maple,

pine, balsam fir, aspen, basswood, oak, on roadsides, railroad right-

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

1958]

Mason & litis — Wisconsin Flora. No. U2

87

of-ways, sandy creek bottoms, meadows, and sandy prairie rem¬

nants. Flowering from July to early September.

3. A. PUBESCENS Wallr. Map 26.

Roots tuberous-thickened ; stems 3-12 dm. tall ; stems and leaf-

rachises pilose with oblique, ascending or incurving hairs ; principal

leaflets of larger leaves 5-13, lanceolate to narrowly obovate,

coarsely serrate, glabrous, or sparsely pubescent above, velvety-

pubescent beneath ; axis of inflorescence densely pubescent, the

hairs eglandular; fruiting hypanthium and calyx 3-6 mm. long,

minutely strigose in the deep furrows, the bristles ascending.

Common in southern Wisconsin in a variety of damp or mesic

woods of maple, birch, elm, ash, basswood, and oak, wooded bluffs

and dunes, ravines, pastured woodlots, and roadsides. Flowers July

and August.

10. ROSA L. Rose.

(THIS GENUS NOT TREATED TO SPECIES)

Shrubs or woody vines, usually thorny; leaves pinnate, 3—1 1 -

foliolate; stipules large and adnate to petiole; hypanthium globose

to pitcher-shaped, contracted at mouth, becoming fleshy in fruit;

sepals usually long-attenuate or prolonged into a foliaceous tip,

often persistent in fruit; petals large, spreading at anthesis, white

to dark pink, or yellow (in introduced species) ; stamens numerous,

inserted near the orifice of the hypanthium; ovaries numerous, be¬

coming bony achenes, completely enclosed by and inserted on the

bottom and sides of hypanthium.

11. PRUNUS L. Plum; Cherry.

Trees or shrubs ; leaves simple, often with petiolar glands ; hy¬

panthium cup-shaped ; sepals 5, spreading or reflexed, usually soon

deciduous; petals 5, white to pink, spreading; stamens 15-20, ex-

serted; pistil one, simple, with 2 ovules; fruit a 1-seeded drupe, the

exocarp fleshy, the endocarp hard.

1. Inflorescences elongate racemes (15-45 flowers) terminating-

new leafy branchlets of the season ; pedicels 3-8 mm. long, much

shorter than inflorescence-axis ; calyx-lobes glabrous within ;

petals 2. 5-4.0 mm. long__ Subgenus PADUS (Moench) Koehne.

2. Calyx-lobes in flower conspicuously erose-laciniate, triangular

to semicircular, the many narrow teeth tipped with red

glands, the lobes as well as part of hypanthium soon decidu¬

ous leaving only a narrow rim beneath fruit; leaf-teeth nar¬

rowly triangular, mostly ascending to slightly outcurved ;

mature leaves generally obovate, dull above; usually shrubs,

sometimes trees to 10 m. tall _ 1. P. virginiana.

88 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

2. Calyx-lobes in flower entire or occasionally with few (up to

5) elongate glandular teeth, triangular to oblong, persistent

in fruit; leaf-teeth very short, with incurved tips; mature

leaves generally lance-oblong, shiny above ; trees to 25 m.

tall _ 2. P. serotina.

1. Inflorescences umbel-like clusters or short racemes (2-8 flow¬

ers) borne on last year’s woody branchlets; pedicels 5-20 mm.

long, much longer than inflorescence-axis ; calyx-lobes glabrous

or pubescent within ; petals 3-12 mm. long.

3. Fruit (ovary) glabrous and without waxy bloom, globose or

nearly so, 5-10 mm. long; stone globose to subglobose, with¬

out pronounced longitudinal furrows ; calyx-lobes glabrous on

inner surface; petals 3-6 mm. long

_ Subgenus CERASUS Pers. (Cherry).

4. Leaves lanceolate, toothed to base, with margins not thick¬

ened; teeth many, 0.5-1. 4 mm. apart, irregular in size,

gland-tipped when young; mature fruit red, 5-7 mm.

diam. ; calyx-lobes with eglandular margins ; shrubs or

small trees _ 3. P. pensylvanica.

4. Leaves oblanceolate, entire towards base, with thickened

margins; teeth few, 1. 5-5.0 mm. apart, regular in size, not

gland-tipped; mature fruit black, subglobose, 8-12 mm. in

diam. ; calyx-lobes with glandularly margins ; low, erect or

decumbent shrubs rarely over 2 m. tall _ 4. P. pumila.

3. Fruit (ovary) sparsely pubescent and with waxy bloom,

ellipsoid, 15-25 mm. long; stone distinctly compressed, longer

than broad, with one or two longitudinal furrows on edges ;

calyx-lobes pubescent or tomentose within, at least towards

base; petals 6-12 mm. long.

_ Subgenus PRUNOPHOR A Focke (Plum).

5. Leaves serrate, the teeth sharply acute or acuminate,

ascending, eglandular; petiole glands often lacking; calyx-

lobes entire or occasionally toothed towards upper end, in

these cases at times glandular ; shrubs or small trees, often

forming thickets _ 5. P. americana.

5. Leaves crenate or serrate, the teeth obtuse or rounded,

gland-tipped, or when glands deciduous ending in a callus ;

petioles with sublaminar glands ; calyx-lobes essentially

entire, always glandular on margins ; small trees

_ 6. P. nigra.

1. P. virginiana L. Choke-cherry. Map 27, 28.

Usually shrubs, sometimes trees to 10 m. tall; leaves ovate-oblong

to obovate, short acuminate to obtuse, sharply serrate with slender,

ascending or outcurved teeth ; racemes 8-14 cm. long, terminating

1958]

Mason & litis — Wisconsin Flora. No. U2

89

leafy twigs of season; pedicels 4-8 mm. long; calyx-lobes triangular

to semi-circular, 0.5-1 .0 mm. long, conspicuously erose-laciniate

with gland-tipped teeth ; lobes and portion of hypanthium deciduous

soon after anthesis; petals white 2. 5-4.0 mm. long; fruit 5-10 mm.

diam., red to dark purple.

Forma Deamii G. N. Jones (map 28) distinguishes plants with

soft-pubescence on young stems, raceme-axes, petioles, and veins on

underside of leaves. In Wisconsin sporodically throughout the range

of the species.

Common throughout the state in a wide variety of habitats ;

open places as roadsides, railroad right-of-ways, fence rows, open

sterile sandy soil, often in prairie thickets, in upland and/or low¬

land woods, and on edges of swamps and bogs. Flowering May

through June, fruiting June and September.

2. P. serotina Ehrh. Black Cherry; Rum-cherry. Map 29.

Tree up to 25 m. tall, often blooming when less than 5 m. ; leaves

lance-oblong to oblong-ovate, acuminate, 4-14 cm. long, finely ser¬

rate with slender or blunt incurved teeth, the lower side often with

stiff brown hairs along base of midrib; racemes slender, terminat¬

ing leafy twigs of current season, 5-14 cm. long; pedicels 3-7 mm.

long ; calyx lobes entire or sparsely glandular-serrate, persistent un¬

der fruit; petals white, 2. 5-4.0 mm. long; fruit subglobose, 5-10

mm. diam., dark purple or black.

There is some indication that this species may hybridize with

P. virginiana.

Over the state especially common in the southern half, in a variety

of dry to wet woods (beech-maple, oak, pine, bottomland, at times a

prominent part of the forest) on open bluffs, hillsides, sandy

prairies and fence rows. Flowering May through mid-June, fruiting

late June through September.

3. P. pensylvanica L.f. Bird-; Pin-; Fire-; Pigeon-Cherry Map 30.

Shrubs or small trees ; leaves lanceolate to narrowly ovate, 4-1 1

cm. long, acuminate, finely and irregularly serrate to base, the

rounded teeth very strongly incurved with the gland therefore

seemingly between the teeth ; flowers 3-8 in each umbel-like cluster

or short raceme; pedicels each 1-2 cm. long; calyx-lobes glabrous,

glandless; petals white, 3-5 mm. long, sometimes villous on the

back near the base; fruit deep red to maroon, globose, 5-7 mm.

diam., very sour ( fide Kruschke) ; stone subglobose.

Very common over most of the state in a variety of habitats, as

damp or dry, upland or lowland woods (pine-oak-ash; paper birch-

yellow birch- red maple-Sorfr^s americana-Populns tremuloides;

Pinus strobus ) rocky, clay or sandy soils, granite or quartzite out-

90 W is cons in Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters ( Vol. 47

1958]

Mason & litis — Wisconsin Flora. No. 1*2

91

crops, lake shores, bluffs and ridges, in pastured woods, along road¬

sides, common in burned-over areas and in second growth thickets,

in the southern parts often “among white pine relics on rocky

bluffs” (Iverson 1955). Flowering May and June, fruiting June to

September.

4. P. pumila L. Dwarf-; Sand-cherry. Map 31, 31 A.

Diffusely branched, low or prostrate slender shrubs, usually less

than 2 m. tall ; leaves oblanceolate to oblong, 3-8 cm. long, 7-25 mm.

wide, obtuse to acute, finely and remotely serrulate above middle,

entire towards the base; flowers 2-4 in each umbel-like cluster;

pedicels 5-14 mm. long; calyx-lobes glandular, glabrous within;

petals white, 3-6 mm. long; fruit subglobose, 8-12 mm. diam., black

or nearly so, very astringent.

Locally over the state on hillsides, open woods (deciduous woods;

Finns banksiana ; Quercus macro carpa-Q. ellipsoidalis) , bluffs,

sandstone cliffs and outcrops, and commonly on dunes, beaches,

rocky shores, sandy prairies, sandy glacial outwash plains, and sand

blows and barrens, generally in open (sunny) habitats. Flowering-

May and June, fruiting middle of June to September.

A polymorphic species, perhaps divisible into two ill-defined taxa

in Wisconsin; the first, called P. pumila var. cuneata (Raf.) Bailey

by Gleason (1952) and P. susquehanae Willd. by Fernald (1950),

is according to these authors supposed to grow in dry, rocky woods

(Gleason) or in sandy or otherwise acid, dry to wet, open habitats

(Fernald), with erect or diffusely branched stems and leaves acute

at base and 1. 5-2.0 times as long as broad. The second taxon,

treated as P. pumila var. pumila by Gleason and as P. pumila L. by

Fernald, supposedly prefers sandy soils, sand dunes, and calcareous

shores, especially of the Great Lakes, has erect, diffusely branched,

sometimes decumbent stems and leaves that are long-tapering to

base and 3-6 times as long as broad.

Prunus pumila, sensu lato, is very variable in Wisconsin, with

only the extremes separable into the above-named forms. In plot¬

ting the length vs. width of all Wisconsin collections (map 31A), it

is clear, however, that the extremes are at either end of a con¬

tinuous variation pattern. Since most specimens fall between the

above named morphological extremes, they cannot be assigned to

one or the other of the varieties or species. For this reason the

segregate taxa are not recognized here. A detailed study of this

species throughout its range would seem highly desirable.

5. P. AMERICANA Marsh. Wild Plum ; American Plum Map 32.

Shrubs or small trees to 8 m. tall, spreading from the roots and

forming thickets ; leaves obovate to obovate-oblong, 5-10 cm. long,

sharply acuminate; teeth sharply, often doubly, serrate, ascending

92 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

and spreading ; petiole usually without glands at base of leaf blade ;

flowers 2-5, in umbel-like clusters; pedicels 7-15 mm. long; calyx-

lobes often toothed toward summit, glandless or with few obscure

glands, pubescent or tomentose on inner surface, 2-4 mm. long;

petals white, 6-10 mm. long; fruits red to yellow, ellipsoid, 1-3 cm.

long ; stone compressed.

Var. americana : hypanthium glabrous; upper side of the petiole

and leaf-veins beneath thinly pubescent; rest of leaf sometimes

pubescent when very young, but soon glabrescent.

Var. lanata Sudw. : branchlets, petioles, lower leaf-surface,

sepals, and hypanthium persistently and softly pubescent.

Both varieties occur locally, often commonly, over the southern %

of the state, along roads, edges of woods, fence-rows, thickets,

ravines, marshes, river bottoms and banks, fields, or in woods (oak,

hickory, maple, basswood), limestone ridges, bluffs and sandy

plains. Flowering April through May, fruiting middle of May

through August.

6. P. nigra Ait. Canada Plum; Horse Plum. Map 33.

Small tree; leaves obovate to broadly oblong-obovate, 7-12 cm.

long, 3-7 cm. wide, abruptly acuminate, often doubly crenate or

serrate with blunt gland-tipped teeth ; petiole glands usually 2 ;

flowers 2-4, in umbel-like clusters; pedicels 1-2 cm. long; calyx-

lobes glandular-serrate, 3-5 mm. long, sometimes becoming red ;

petals white to pink, 8-12 mm. long ; fruit ellipsoid, red varying to

yellow, 1. 5-3.0 cm. long, almost without bloom.

Locally common in rich woods of river bottoms or uplands

(maple-basswood-yellow birch; upland oak; Tsuga-Acer saccharum-

Betnla papyrifera) along river banks, ravines, limestone or quartz¬

ite cliffs, open field, pastures or swamps. Flowering April through

May, fruiting June to September.

12. PYRUS L. Apple.

Small trees or shrubs, sometimes thorny; leaves simple, toothed

or lobed ; inflorescences umbel-like clusters on dwarf lateral

branches ; flowers large, showy ; hypanthium globose to obovoid ;

sepals 5; petals 5, elliptic to obovate, short-clawed; stamens 15-50;

ovary 5-celled, inferior; styles 2-5; fruit a pome, each cell with 2

seeds.

1. Leaves finely serrate, not lobed; anther yellow; stem not thorny;

sepals persistent in fruit; introduced _ 1. P. malus.

1. Leaves coarsely serrate and usually shallow lobed; anthers pink

to salmon color ; stems often with thorns ; sepals often deciduous

in fruit; native _ 2. P. ioensis.

1958]

Mason & litis — Wisconsin Flora. No. V2

93

1. P. malus L. Cultivated Apple.

Small trees, not thorny; leaves oblong-ovate, rounded to cordate

at base, crenate to serrate, pubescent beneath ; inflorescence woolly ;

calyx-lobes white to gray tomentose, persistent in fruit; petals

pinkish-white.

Native of Asia, widely cultivated and rarely escaped. Flowering

May and June.

2. P. ioensis (Wood) Carruth. Wild Crab Apple. Map 34.

Small trees or much branched and usually thorny shrubs ; branch-

lets tomentose ; leaves ovate-oblong to broadly elliptic, coarsely ser¬

rate to shallowly lobed, usually persistently pubescent beneath ; hy-

panthium and pedicels densely tomentose; flowers white-pink, fra¬

grant, as large as 4 cm. broad ; fruit a small apple, green, very sour,

astringent.

Over the southern half of state in open woods, thickets, and pas¬

tures, oak openings, dry hillsides and bluffs, prairies and drier

borders of marshes and swamps. Flowering May and early June.

13. ARONIA Medic. Chokeberry.

1. A. MELANOCARPA (Michx). Ell. Maps 35, 36.

(Including A. prunifolia (Marsh.) Rehder.)

Shrubs with simple, alternate, glandular-serrate leaves with a

row of black glands along the mid-vein on the upper side ; inflores¬

cence a cluster of small flowers; hypanthium broadly obconic;

sepals 5, usually glandular on the margin ; petals 5, roundish, short-

clawed, spreading ; stamens usually 20 ; ovary densely woolly on the

summit; styles 5, connate at base, long persistent; fruit a small

pome.

Occurs over the state in acid usually damp soils of Larix bogs,

marshes, woods, granite outcrops, limestone and sandstone ridges,

bluffs, cliffs, and shores of lakes. Flowers May and June.

The Wisconsin collections present a confusing picture, about half

having leaves glabrous beneath, even when young, branchlets,

pedicels and hypanthium glabrous or nearly so, and the other half

having slightly to pronounced pubescence beneath leaves, on branch-

lets, pedicels and the hypanthium. There seems to be no geographic

pattern to the distribution of presence or absence of pubescence.

The pubescent forms are called A. prunifolia by Gleason (1952)

and Fernald (1950) as a separate species, and Jones (1955, map

613) shows both the glabrous and pubescent species occurring about

equally common and with the same range in Illinois. The same is

true in Wisconsin (map 35 and 36) . This pattern suggests one vari¬

able species. No clear separation into two species appears possible

94 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

1958]

Mason & litis — Wisconsin Flora. No. U2

95

on the basis of Wisconsin material, the material exhibiting a con¬

tinuous variation from glabrous to strongly pubescent (shown by

circled dots). Nevertheless, for reference, the two maps are fur¬

nished in this treatment, one showing distribution of glabrous, the

other of pubescent plants.

14. SORBUS L. Mountain Ash.

Small trees or shrubs; leaves odd-pinnate (in Wisconsin), with

11-17 serrate leaflets; flowers white, numerous, in large, much

branched rounded or flattened clusters ; hypanthium obconic ; sepals

5, triagular; petals 5, obovate to orbicular; stamens 15-20; pistils

(in Wisconsin) 2-4, half inferior, more or less separate above;

styles free; fruit a pome, each cell with 1 or 2 elongate, flattened

seeds (See Jones, 1939).

1. Hypanthium and calyx-lobes densely white-villous; outer scales

of winter buds densely villous on the back; introduced from

Europe _ 1. S. aucuyaria.

1. Hypanthium and calyx-lobes glabrous or sparsely pubescent;

outer scales of winter buds glabrous or very sparsely pubescent

on back; native.

2. Leaflets oblong to oblong-elliptic, acute to abruptly short

acuminate, 3-7 cm. long, 2. 0-3. 3 times long as wide; petals

3-4 mm. long; mature fruits 6-10 mm. in diam.

_ 2. S. decora.

2. Leaflets lanceolate to narrowly oblong, slenderly long acumi¬

nate, 4-9 cm. long, 3-5 times long as wide; petals 2-3 mm.

long; mature fruits 4-7 mm. in diam. _ 3. S. americana.

1. S. aucuparia L. Rowan tree; European Mountain Ash. Map 37.

Small tree, with young, more or less villous branches; winter

buds white-villous, non-glutinous ; leaflets 2-6 cm. long, 1-2 cm.

wide, oblong, blunt to short-acuminate, sharply or bluntly serrate,

paler and soft pubescent beneath, at least when young; inflores¬

cence 10-20 cm. wide ; hypanthium densely white-villous ; fruit

about 10 mm. in diam., bright red.

Native of Europe, commonly cultivated and sometimes escaping

into moist woods in southeast Wisconsin. Flowering in late May

through June.

2. S. decora (Sarg.) C. K. Schneider. Mountain Ash; Roundwood;

Dogberry. Map 38.

Shrub or small tree with young branchlets glabrous or nearly so ;

winter buds glutinous; leaflets oblong to oblong-elliptic, 3-7 cm.

long, 1.0-2. 3 cm. wide, 2. 0-3. 3 times as long as wide, abruptly short-

96 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

acuminate to acute, sharply serrate, paler and glabrous or sparsely

pilose beneath; inflorescence 6-15 cm. wide, open; hypanthium

glabrous or very sparsely pilose; petals white, 3-4 mm. long;

mature fruit 6-10 mm. in diam., bright red.

Over the state in woods, on rocky soils, limestone and sandstone

cliffs, shores of lakes, rivers, swamps, marshes and bogs. Flowering

late May and June.

3. S. Americana Marsh. American Mountain Ash ; Roundwood ;

Dogberry. Map 39.

Shrub or tree with young branches glabrous or nearly so ; winter

buds glutinous or very sparsely ciliate; leaflets lanceolate to nar¬

rowly oblong, 4-9 cm. long, 1.0-2. 3 cm. wide, 3-5 times as long as

wide, long acuminate, sharply serrate, paler and usually glabrous

beneath; inflorescence 6-15 cm. wide, densely many flowered; hy¬

panthium and calyx-lobes glabrous ; mature fruit bright red, 4-7

mm. diam.

Occurs locally over the state on shores, sandstone bluffs and talus

slopes, deciduous woods, swamps, bogs, and marshes. Flowers June

and July, fruits August to October, the fruits sometimes persisting

through winter.

The six large dots (map 39) indicate collections cited bv Jones

(1939, p. 14).

15. CRATAEGUS L. Hawthorn; Red Haw.

(THIS GENUS NOT TREATED TO SPECIES)

Small trees or shrubs ; branches usually thorny, often reflexed ;

leaves simple, serrate to variously lobed, those at ends of vegetative

shoots differently shaped, larger and usually more deeply cut than

those of the flowering branchlets ; hypanthium campanulate or

obconic ; sepals 5 ; petals 5, white, rarely pink ; stamens 5-20, alter¬

nately arranged in 1-5 rows, often persistent in fruit; styles 1-5,

free, with dilated terminal segments, persistent ; ovary 1-5, the car¬

pels inferior or free at apex ; fruit a pome, with 1-5 bony, usually

1-seeded nutlets (See Kruschke, 1955).

16. AMELANCH1ER Medic. Juneberry; Serviceberry ;

Shadbrush ; Sugarplum.

(THIS GENUS NOT TREATED TO SPECIES)

Small trees or shrubs ; leaves simple, serrate ; inflorescence race¬

mose (rarely umbelliform) ; hypanthium obconic, campanulate, or

saucer-shaped; sepals 5; petals 5, white, obovate-linear ; stamens

1958]

Mason & litis — Wisconsin Flora. No. U2

97

usually 20 ; ovary 5-celled, inferior ; styles 5, free or partly united ;

fruit a small 10-celled pome by intrusion of false septum (See

Jones, 1946 and Nielsen, 1989).

Literature Cited

Curtis, J. T. and H. C. Greene. 1949. A study of relic Wisconsin prairies by

the species presence methods. Ecology 30:83-92.

Deam, C. C. 1940. Flora of Indiana. Indiana Dept, of Conservation, Indian¬

apolis.

Fernald, M. L. 1950. Gray’s Manual of Botany, Ed. 8. American Book Co.,

New York.

Gleason, H. A. 1952. The New Britton and Brown Illustrated Flora. Lan¬

caster Press, Lancaster.

Iverson, W. D. 1955. A survey of the trees and shrubs of Iowa County, Wis¬

consin. Unpublished MS. Submitted for Botany 180 under the supervision

of Dr. J. W. Thomson, University of Wisconsin.

Jones, G. N. 1939. A synopsis of the North American species of Sorbus. .Tour.

Arm Arb. 20:1-43.'

Jones, G. N. 1946. American species of Amelanchier. Ill. Biol. Monog. 20(2),

126 pp.

Jones, G. N. and G. D. Fuller. 1955. Vascular Plants of Illinois. Univ. of

Illinois Press, Urbana.

Kruschke, E. P. 1955. Hawthorns of Wisconsin. Milwaukee Pub. Mus. Publ.

Botany No. 2. 124 pp.

Nielsen, E. L. 1939. A taxonomic study of the genus Amelanchier in Minne¬

sota. Amer. Midi. Nat. 22:160-206.

Rydberg, A. 1908. Rosaceae (pars.) North Amer. Flora 22 (4) :293-388.

Salamun, P. J. 1951. A population study of the variation in the inflorescence

of Spiraea tomentosa. Rhodora 53:280-292.

.

NOTES ON WISCONSIN PARASITIC FUNGI. XXIV

H. C. Greene

Department of Botany, University of Wisconsin, Madison

The collections of fungi referred to in this publication were,

unless otherwise noted, made during the season of 1957.

Bartholomew’s Fungi Columbiani No. 3954, issued as Puccinia

patruelis Arth. I on Prenanthes crepidinea Michx. from Madison,

Wis. is in obvious error as to the host, which is P. alba L. P. crepi¬

dinea is very rare in Wisconsin, with only two stations known, and

so far no rust collected on it.

Erysiphe graminis DC. had profuse development of perithecia

on Secale cereale at Madison in June. For some reason, or reasons,

which are not apparent, production of perithecia in the Wisconsin

area is the exception rather than the rule. E. graminis has been

reported so far on 17 grass species in Wisconsin, but perithecia on

only four, Agropyron re pens, A. trachycaulum , Hordeum vulgar e

and Secale cereale, and there are very few specimens on these.

Mycosphaerella sp. occurs on dead leaves of Artemisia serrata,

collected near Brodhead, Green Co., August 6. Two plants with

dead leaves were noted in the center of a large group of healthy

plants of the same species. The small black perithecia are in numer¬

ous clusters over the upper leaf surface, appearing not to have been

on distinct spots. The short-clavate asci are about 35 x 7-8 p, the

ascospores curved-fusoid, the upper cell somewhat wider, approx.

12 x 3.5 fi. Possibly parasitic.

Phaeosphaeria sp. occurred on dead apical portions of other¬

wise green, living stems of Eleocharis palustris at Madison, August

25. Perhaps parasitic. The innate, scattered perithecia are medium

brown, aparaphysate, subglobose, approx. 10(V diam. ; asci clavate-

cylindric, thick-walled, approx. 47-50 x 18-20 p ; ascospores pale

olivaceous, broadly fusoid, 3-septate, 22-24 x 7-8 p.

Phaeosphaeria sp., appearing parasitic, developed on vigorous

living leaves of Phalaris arundinacea at Madison, July 23. The spots

are oval or irregular, ashen with narrow darker border, approx.

0.3-0. 5 cm. long; perithecia black, subglobose, gregarious, approx.

175-200 p diam., aparaphysate; asci slender clavate, 85-100 x 8-

11 p; ascospores deep-olivaceous, subcylindric, 3-celled, the central

cell slightly inflated, 14-15 x 4-4.5 p.

Leptosphaeria sp. is on tiny snow-white spots on leaves of

Populus alba, collected at Madison, August 4. The spots, about 1-2

99

100 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

mm. diam., bear mostly one, occasionally two or three, perithecia

which are blackish, subglobose, thin-walled, about 135-150 ^ diam.;

paraphyses slender, not capitate; asci approx. 70-80 fi, cylindric

and somewhat tapered at base ; ascospores light-olivaceous, sub-

fusoid, slightly curved, 5-septate, about 28 x 4 /*. The relation to the

host is uncertain, but the leaves are living and the spots only a few

per leaf.

“A Check List of North American Rust Fungi (Uredinales) ” by

G. B. Cummins and J. A. Stevenson (193 pp.) appeared as Supple¬

ment 240, Plant Disease Reporter, December 15, 1956. Many name

changes involving rusts found in Wisconsin are listed, with perti¬

nent synonymy. The rules adopted at Stockholm in 1950 are fol¬

lowed, with the result that some of the best-known and longest used

names are swept away, including Coleosporium solidaginis, Puc¬

cinia caricis, Puccinia extensicola and Puccinia rubigo-vera. The

following changes have been noted in the case of rusts known to

occur in Wisconsin — the approved name is given first, followed by

the name (in parentheses) formerly used in these notes: — Chry-

somyxa ledi DeBary var. cassandrae (Peck & Clint.) Savile (C. cas-

sandrae (Peck & Clint.) Tranz.) ; Coleosporium asterum (Diet.)

Syd. ( C . solidaginis (Schw.) Thum.) ; Coleosporium. sonchi

(Strauss) Lev. ex Tul. (C. sonchi-arvensis (Pers.) Lev.) ; Melamp-

sora paradoxica Diet. & Holw. ( M . bigelowii Thum.) ; Melamp-

sorel.la caryophy llace arum Schroet. ( M . cerastii (Pers.) Schroet.) ;

Pileolaria brevipes Berk. & Rav. ( P . toxicodendri Arth.) ; Puccinia

tanaceti DC. (P. absinthii (Hedw. f.) DC.) ; Puccinia hordei Otth

(P. anomala Rostr.) ; Puccinia caricina DC. (P. caricis (Schum.)

Schroet.) ; Puccinia dioicae P. Magn. (P. extensicola Plowr.) ; Puc¬

cinia caricina DC. var. limosae (P. Magn.) Jorstad (P. karelica

Tranz) ; Puccinia punctiformis (Str.) Roehl. (P. obtegens Tul.) ;

Puccinia sparganioides Ell. & Barth. (P. peridermiospora Ell. &

Tr.) ; Puccinia poae-nemoralis Otth (P. poae-sudeticae (West.)

Jorstad) ; Puccinia lapathicola Hylander, Jorstad & Nannf. (P.

punctiformis Diet. & Holw.) ; Puccinia recondita Rob. ex Desm.

(P. rubgio-vera (DC.) Wint.) ; Puccinia cryptandrae Ell. & Barth.

(P. simulans (Peck) Barth.) ; Pucciniastrum epilobii Otth (P. pus-

tulatum Diet) ; Pucciniastrum guttatum Hylander, Jorstad & Nannf.

(P. galii (Lk.) Fisch.) Pucciniastrum vaccinii (Wint.) Jorstad

(P. myrtilli (Schum.) Arth.) ; Uredinopsis americana Syd. ( U. mir-

abilis (Pk.) Magn.) ; Uromyces dactylidis Otth ( U. alopecuri

Seym.) ; Uromyces ari-triphylli (Schw.) Seeler ( U. caladii (Schw.)

Farl.) ; Uromyces diant h i Niessl ( U. caryophyllinus (Schr.)

Wint.) ; Uromyces triquetrus Cooke {U. hyperici (Spreng.) Curt.) ;

Uromyces polygoni-avicularis (Pers.) Karst. ( U . polygoni (Pers.)

Fckl.) ; Uromyces euphorbiae Cooke & Pk. ( U . proeminens (DC.)

1 958]

Green e — W isconsin Pa ms it ic Fung i. XX I V

101

Pass.) ; Uromyces lineolatus (Desm.) Schroet. ( U . scirpi (Cast.)

Burr.). In addition to this the rust on Artemisia dracunculoides in

Wisconsin, formerly listed as Puccinia absinthii, has been segre¬

gated as Puccinia dracunculi Fahrendorf (Ann. Mycol. 39:181.

1941). Aecial stages on Ascelpiadaceae heretofore considered in

turn to belong under Puccinia bartholomaei Diet, and then under

P. vexans Farl. are here placed under Puccinia chloridis Speg., not

hitherto recorded for Wisconsin.

Puccinia difformis Kunze was collected on Galium, aparine at

Madison in July. J. J. Davis made a single previous collection in

1925 at Spring Valley, Pierce Co.

Puccinia helianthi Schw. I on Helianthus hirsutus. Dane Co.,

Madison, June 13. A collection of II, III was made at the same sta¬

tion in 1956.

Phyllostictae indet., some of them uncertain as to parasitism,

continue to turn up on diverse hosts and are reported on collectively

as follows :

1) On Panicum scribnerianum. Dane Co., Madison, July 22. Am-

phigenous on oval tan spots, about .5-7 cm., with narrow darker

border. Pycnidia gregarious, pale brown, thin-walled, about 75 /x

diam. ; conidia hyaline, subfusoid, 13-15 x 3-3.5 /x . The cell content

is withdrawn from the wall and it is somewhat doubtful that the

spores are properly matured.

2) On Polygonum sagittatum, collected in Tower Hill State Park,

Iowa Co., September 17. The large pycnidia were much more notice¬

able in the fresh material than in the dried. They are epiphyllous on

irregular, immarginate, dull brownish areas, gregarious, pale

brown, subglobose, approx. 150-185 /x diam. ; conidia hyaline, sub-

cylindric or subfusoid, straight or slightly curved, 10-14 x 4-5 /x.

3) On Dianthus barbatus (cult.) at Madison, July 6. Spots oval,

pale brown, with a narrow darker border, large, 1-1.2 cm. x .5 cm. ;

pycnidia epiphyllous, pale brown, ostiolate, slightly flattened, about

50-75 n diam. ; conidia hyaline, short-cylindric, 2-2.5 x 3-5 jx.

4) On Ranunculus acris collected in the Flambeau State Forest,

Sawyer Co., July 18. The lesions are similar to those produced by

Phyllosticta decidua, but the conidia are quite variable, 5-12 x 2.5-

3 ix. The brown pycnidia are approx. 125-150 /x diam.

5) On ripened silicles of Thlaspi arvense, collected at Madison,

July 13. The gregarious pycnidia are black, prominently ostiolate,

subglobose, approx. 175-200 /x; conidia hyaline, fusoid or subfusoid,

2. 5-3. 5 x 7-10 fx. Perhaps a Phomopsis, but scolecospores were not

observed.

6) On Sanguinaria canadensis collected at Madison, July 14. The

spots are cinerous, irregular, red-bordered, many of them sterile;

102 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

pycnidia epiphyllous, black, globose, scattered, approx. 75 jx diam.,

widely ostiolate ; conidia greenish-hyaline, ovoid, 5-7 x 3-3.5 jx. This

seems not to be P. sanguinariae Wint. (Jour. Mycol. 1:123. 1885)

described as having ellipsoid spores, 5-7 x 1.5-2. 5 jx.

7) On Pyrus mains collected at Madison, August 2. The lesions

are similar to those which bore Mycosphaerella as described in my

Notes XVII (Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci. 41:117. 1952). It seems likely

there is a relationship, since the pycnidia are similar in appearance

and in their disposition on the spots. The pycnidia are epiphyllous,

black, subglobose, approx. 125-150 jx diam.; conidia hyaline, fusoid,

biguttulate, 9-11 x 3-3.5 jx.

8) On Rhus aromatica at Madison, September 3. Lesions black,

wedge-shaped, narrowing inward from the leaf apex; pycnidia

sooty-black, subglobose, scattered, epiphyllous, approx. 100-150 fi

diam.; conidia subhyaline, ellipsoid or broadly fusoid, 16-19 x 5-

7.5 fi, extruded in cirrhi. An immature Sphaeropsis ?

9) On Acer ruhrum, near Falun, Burnett Co., July 16. This ap¬

pears not to be Phyllosticta minima, common on Acer ruhrum in

Wisconsin. The medium-sized, rather superficial, flesh-colored, flat¬

tened pycnidia are epiphyllous and clustered in the centers of or¬

bicular tan spots, approx. .5-1 cm. diam., similar to those caused by

Cladosporium humile J. J. Davis on this host; conidia hyaline, 4-6 x

3-3.5 fx, as compared to about 6x8/t for P. minima.

10) On Pentstemon tubiflorus at Madison, August 12. Spots or¬

bicular, tan with a narrow reddish border, approx. .3-5 cm. diam. ;

pycnidia epiphyllous, scattered, black, subglobose, approx. ISO-

175 jx diam. ; conidia hyaline, very numerous, bacilliform, 5-7 x 1.5

11) On Sambucus pubens at Madison, July 28. The spots are tan,

more or less translucent areas of indefinite extent, somewhat angled

and frequently shredding. The pycnidia are blackish, subglobose,

approx. 150-175 jx diam. ; conidia hyaline, cylindric, 2.5-3 x 5-6 jx.

12) In small amount on Eupatorium perfoliatum at Madison,

August 11, 1956. The lesions are angular and brown, the epiphyl¬

lous pycnidia pale brown, clustered, subglobose, about 100 jx diam.

Conidia are hyaline ellipsoid to subfusoid, 6-8 x 2.5-3 jx. This is

perhaps identical with Phyllosticta umbrino-fumosa H. C. Greene

which occurred on Eupatorium rugosum (Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci.

38 :243. 1946) , but more material would be desirable.

13) On Aster novae-angliae at Madison, July 30. The small, cin-

erous, purple-bordered lesions are reminiscent of those commonly

produced by Septoria solidaginicola Peck on various species of

Solidago and Aster. Pycnidia epiphyllous, one or two per lesion,

subglobose, black, widely ostiolate, approx. 75 jx diam.; conidia

cylindric, hyaline, 4-6 x 2.5-3 jx.

1958]

Greene — Wisconsin Parasitic Fungi. XXIV

103

14) On rosette leaves of Erigeron glabellus collected near Earl,

Washburn Co., September 12, 1956. The subglobose, brown pyc-

nidia are approx. 125-140 p diam., hypophyllous on small, rounded,

light brown spots which have a darker reddish-brown border;

conidia hyaline, ovoid or ellipsoid, 4.5-6 x 2.5-3 p.

15) On Ambrosia psilostachya at Tower Hill State Park, Iowa

Co., September 17. This is a striking, but at the same time a not too

well-marked and somewhat puzzling fungus. The black pycnidia are

almost superficial, globose or subglobose, approx. 100-225 p diam.,

scattered or clustered, often at the base of leaf lobes, causing no¬

table leaf curvature and subsequent death of the lobe, or some¬

times arranged serially on the midrib, with similar effect on the

host. The conidia fall into two principal classes, as shown by the

extremes, 1) narrowly subfusoid, approx. 9-11 x 2. 5-3. 5 p, and

2) broadly ellipsoid, approx. 7-8 x 4-5 p. Intermediate are conidia

which are broadly subfusoid, approx. 10-11 x 4.5-5 p. Dimension-

wise there is no sharp differentiation between these groups.

16) On Echinacea pallida at Madison, July 20. Spots orbicular,

large, up to 2 cm. diam., blackish. Pycnidia epiphyllous, scattered

and few on spots, thin-walled below, with darker heavier cells in

the ostiolar region, subepidermal, somewhat flattened, approx. 50-

100 x 35-60 p ; conidia hyaline, short-cylindric, 2-2.5 x 3-3.5 p.

Strong leaf curvature is often associated with the lesions.

17) On marginal portions of languishing and dead leaves of

Tragopogon pratensis at Madison, August 5. The pycnidia are scat¬

tered to gregarious, black, globose, markedly erumpent, approx.

125-200 jx diam. ; conidia hyaline, cylindric to subfusoid, 5-7 x 2-3 p.

Cicinnobolus sp. occurs on Microsphaera euonymi (DC.) Sacc.

on Evonymus atropurpureus collected at Oakly, Green Co., Octo¬

ber 3. The large pycnidia are up to 100 x 40 p, the hyaline conidia

mostly about 6-8 x 3.5-4 p, some smaller and a very few larger.

Obviously not C. cesati DeBary, which has much smaller spores.

Other species have been described, of which C. plantaginis Oud.

seems closest in conidial measurements.

PHOMA sp. is present in small amount on dull brownish, oval

spots on living stems of Eryngium yuccifolium, collected at Madi¬

son, July 27. The pycnidia are gregarious, blackish, subglobose,

approx. 100-125 p diam.; conidia hyaline, subfusoid, 4-5 x 1.5 p.

Phoma sp. occurred on stems of Linaria vulgaris collected at Par-

frey’s Glen, Sauk Co., September 24. The stems in question are

dead, but other branches of the same plants were still green and

living. The seriate pycnidia are deep brown, subglobose, approx.

150-200 p diam.; the very numerous conidia are small short-

cylindric, hyaline, 3-4 x 1.5 p.

104 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

Ascochyta sp. on pale, oval or irregularly elongate lesions on

leaves of Calamagrostis canadensis, Madison, September 14. The

pycnidia are deeply immersed, closely gregarious, black, subglobose,

approx. 100-125 /x diam. ; conidia hyaline, fusoid with acute, some¬

what refractive apices, slightly or not constricted at the median

septum, 18-25 x 3. 5-4. 5 jx.

Ascochyta sp. occurs on dead outer portions of leaves of Oxalis

europea collected at Madison, July 21. The pycnidia are subglobose,

pale brown below, darker above, prominently ostiolate, approx.

120-160 ju diam.; conidia uniformly 1-septate, hyaline, cylindric or

subfusoid, 11-15 x 3.5-4 /a.

Ascochyta sp. occurs on Lactuca canadensis leaves collected at

Madison, August 25, 1956. The dull brown pycnidia are few on

sharply defined, suborbicular, grayish-brown lesions, with a narrow

blackish-purple border, about 1 cm. diam. The lesions are often con¬

fluent. The conidia are uniseptate, often biguttulate, hyaline, cylin¬

dric, 14-16 x 4-5.5 fi. This may well be actually only a rather poorly

developed specimen of Stagonospora, although it does not seem

identical with one found on Lactuca spicata, reported in my Notes

XXIII (Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci. 46:141-158. 1957).

Stagonospora sp. is present in small amount on straw-colored

areas of indefinite shape on leaves of Apios tuberosa, collected at

Juda, Green Co., August 6. The brownish, globose pycnidia are

approx. 100 ^ diam., the hyaline conidia cylindric or subcylindric,

12-17 x 4-4.5 ft, 1-2-septate. The collection was made for Phyl-

losticta phaseolina Sacc. which occurs on nearly all the lesions, and

the presence of the Stagonospora was not suspected until micro¬

scopic examination. There is no mixture of the two on the same

lesion, from all appearances. P. phaseolina produces lesions with a

more reddish cast and the black pycnidia are more readily seen in

a surface inspection.

Stagonospora sp. occurs on a smooth, applanate, brownish insect

gall of the type commonly observed on Solidago (S. gigantea in this

case) collected at Madison, August 2. The pycnidia are scattered on

the gall itself and on its adjacent leaf, indicating perhaps that their

presence is incidental. They are pale brown, subglobose, approx.

200-300 jx diam. ; conidia are subcylindric, 12-18 x 3. 5-4. 5 fi, 1-, 2-,

or 3-septate.

Hendersonia crastophila Sacc. occurred in profusion on lan¬

guishing leaves of Sporobolus asper, collected at Madison, July 29.

The plants were in the main vigorous and healthy and it seems pos¬

sible that the fungus was at least mildly parasitic.

Septoria sp. occurred on leaves of an undetermined double-

flowered cultivated Ranunculus collected at Madison, July 13. Large

1958]

Greene — Wisconsin Parasitic Fungi. XXIV

105

areas of the leaves are brown and dead, with the pycnidia clustered

in groups, indicating perhaps that they were on separate spots at

an earlier stage of infection. The pycnidia are amphigenous, incon¬

spicuous because deeply seated in the tissue, black, subglobose,

small, approx. 40-60 p diam. ; conidia hyaline, acicular, slightly

curved, appearing continuous, approx. 15-25 x 1-1.5 p. Reminiscent

of Septoria anemones Desm. in microscopic characters.

Septoria CRATAEGI Kickx. occurred in profusion, in September at

Madison, on ornamental hawthorns of an undetermined species in

the University of Wisconsin Arboretum. The only previous state

collection was made at Racine in 1888 by J. J. Davis.

Septoria sp. on Aster paniculatus from Madison, June 2, is

epiphyllous on somewhat elongate, angled, dull brown spots, with

spores approx. 45-55 x 2-2.5 p, appearing continuous, mostly

curved. Another of the numerous Septoria variants on Aster and

Soliclago, and one which does not fit into any of the established

specific niches.

Rhabdospora pinea Karst., reported on branches of Pinus syl-

vestris, as described, corresponds well microscopically with a

sphaeropsidaceous fungus on Pinus mugho foliage, collected at

Barron, Barron Co., June 23, 1955 by R. F. Patton who stated that

the tree was much stunted, with all the old growth foliage affected.

Karsten described the pycnidia as erumpent-superficial, variable in

shape but mostly rounded, slightly roughened, blackish, astomatous,

.4 mm. diam. ; spores fusoid-bacilliform, curved or almost straight,

usually 3-septate, greenish-hyaline, 22-40 x 3-4 p.

Rhabdospora (?) occurs on stems and fruiting pedicels of dead

and dying plants of Lysimachia ( N aumburgia ) thyrsiflora collected

at Madison, July 31. The stems are blackened and more or less

sclerotized, while the leaves are brown and dead. The pycnidia, if

such they properly are, are subepidermal, somewhat elongate, or

even at times branched and chambered, rather imperfectly devel¬

oped, especially below, and of the order of 125-150 p in cross sec¬

tion. They are black, thick-walled and irregularly scattered, as a

rule, although sometimes arranged in concentric groups. Vast num¬

bers of hyaline, acicular scolecospores are produced. These are

straight, flexuous, or most often strongly curved, appearing con¬

tinuous, 15-28 x 1-1.5 p. In a few sections there were observed,

more deeply imbedded in the host tissues, rounded fruiting bodies

with immature contents, suggesting the possible ultimate produc¬

tion of an ascomycetous stage. It seems a reasonable assumption

that the fungus was the primary agent of destruction.

Gloeosporium sp. occurs on leaves of Salix glaucophylla, col¬

lected near Cambria, Columbia Co., September 10. The lesions are

106 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

very noticeable, dappled dull brown and blackish above and rufo-

fuscous below, orbicular or irregular, up to more than 2 cm. diam.

The acervuli are hypophyllous, scattered or tending to be clustered

along the principal veins, subcuticular, flattened, 80-110 n diam. by

about 13-15 [a thick, sordid flesh-colored; conidiophores simple,

closely crowded, hyaline, 10-12 x 1.5 y; conidia hyaline, narrow-

cylindric, 5-8 x 1.5-2 /a. Possibly the precursor of a perfect stage.

Ellisiella caudata (Peck) Sacc. is shifted to Ellisiellina cau-

data (Peck) Camara in a paper by A. C. Batista entitled “System¬

atic Revision of the Genera Ellisiella Sacc. and Ellisiellina Camara,

and the new genus Ellisiopsis,’ (An. Soc. Biol. Pernambuco 14:16-

25. 1956). This fungus occurs in Wisconsin on Andropogon gerardi

(furcatus) , A. scoparius, Sorghastrum nutans and Sporobolus

heterolepis.

Septogloeum salicinum (Peck) Sacc. is represented by a num¬

ber of Wisconsin specimens, collected by J. J. Davis, several of

which on Salix rostrata are microconidial primarily, but with lim¬

ited development of typical conidia in at least one of them. A speci¬

men on Salix petiolaris, collected in Barron Co. near Chetek, Sep¬

tember 13, 1956, bears small, rod-shaped microconidia in acervuli

which are hypophyllous on conspicuous, orbicular, light brown,

zonate lesions. It seems likely this should also be referred to

S. salicinum.

Cercospora sp. on Sorbus aucuparia, collected at Madison,

August 15, does not correspond to C. ariae Fckl., the only species

Chupp lists on this host. Here the spots are rounded, purplish above,

sordid below, about 1-2 mm. diam. Conidiophores not strongly

tufted, amphigenous, but mostly hypophyllous, pale brown, one to

several septate, 5-10 or occasionally more geniculate, often strongly

so near the apex, 45-170 x 3.5-5 y; conidia hyaline, narrowly ob-

clavate to almost acicular, base obconic, obscurely multiseptate,

25-80 x 2.5-4 ^

Cercospora sp. occurred in small amount on Campanula rapun-

culoides at Madison, July 25. Spots are small subangular, grayish

with yellowish halo, approx. 2-3 mm. diam. ; conidiophores amphi¬

genous, mostly epiphyllous, fascicled in tufts of approx. 6-8, widely

divergent, 2-3-geniculate, with geniculations very widely spaced,

4-5 x up to 200 jx or more, several septate ; conidia narrowly obcla-

vate to acicular, base obconic or truncate, 40-135 x 3.5-4 fx, 2-11-

septate. Very different from either of the two species on Campanula

listed by Chupp.

Cercospora sp. on Rudbeckia hirta was collected at Madison,

August 17. This is not at all in the range of C. tabacina Ell. & Ev.,

the only species Chupp reports on Rudbeckia. Here the fungus

1958] Greene — Wisconsin Parasitic Fungi. XXIV 107

occurs on small, angled, cinerous spots. The conidiophores are

epiphyllous, lax, about 5-6 in a fascicle, pale brown, multiseptate,

6-8 mildly geniculate, approx. 185-215 x 4-4.5 y, the conidia

straight to slightly curved or flexuous, acicular to narrowly obcla-

vate, base truncate, multiseptate, 135-270 x 3. 5-5. 5 y. Unfortu¬

nately the specimen is very small.

Viola canadensis leaves collected July 18 in the Flambeau State

Forest, Sawyer Co., bear an interesting hyphomycete which Dr.

S. J. Hughes of the Canadian Science Service points out is sug¬

gestively similar to Cercospora murina Ell. & Kell. (Bull. Torr. Bot.

Club 11:122. 1884) which also has inflated conidiophore tips with

localized minute spore scars. In the Wisconsin specimen, however,

many of the conidiophores are branched and there is evidence of

catenulation, so the systematic position remains uncertain.

Helminthosporium specimens in the University of Wisconsin

Cryptogamic Herbarium have been studied by Dr. R. A. Shoemaker

of the Canadian Science Service, who is monographing the genus.

The study has resulted in various changes and shifts in the names

of Wisconsin-collected specimens which are reported at appropriate

points in this paper.

Helminthosporium sp., reported as H. buchloes (Ell. & Ev.)

Lefebvre & A. G. Johnson on Bouteloua curtipendula and B. hirsuta

in Wisconsin is a so far unnamed species according to Shoemaker.

Helminthosporium ravenelii Curtis, as concerns the specimen

reported on Sporobolus neglectus in Wisconsin, is an undetermined

species of Curvularia, according to Shoemaker.

Helminthosporium sorokianum Sacc. replaces the name H.

sativum Pamm., King & Bakke. H. sorokianum occurs on several

grasses in Wisconsin.

Fusarium sp. is present on rounded, fuscous, subzonate spots

about 2-3 mm. diam. on leaves of Euphorbia corollata collected at

Madison, June 29. The fungus is hypophyllous and both micro- and

macrospores are present in profusion. Such spots have often been

seen on E. corollata, but no fungus has been noted. The spots do

not appear to be due to insects, but the relation of the Fusarium

remains uncertain.

Viburnum spp. of the V. lantana group seem to be highly sus¬

ceptible to leaf spotting of more or less indefinite origin. For ex¬

ample, V. carlesii plants in the University of Wisconsin Arboretum

in August had conspicuously spotted leaves, with prominent, black,

epiphyllous, subcuticular pycnidia on the spots, which are all very

similar — orbicular, silvery, somewhat zonate and sunken, about 3

mm. diam. The silvery aspect is due to the upraised cuticle. Rather

cursory examination showed Phyllosticta, Coniothyrium and Asco-

108 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

chyta from pycnidia and on spots almost identical in appearance,

so that one is at a loss as to the true relation of fungi and host.

Carex lacustris leaves, collected September 17 at Tower Hill State

Park, Iowa Co., bear an interesting melanconiaceous fungus. The

conspicuous chestnut-brown spots are orbicular or elongate-

orbicular, 1-2.5 cm., usually running from margin to margin of the

linear leaves. The numerous subcuticular acervuli are epiphyllous,

from 125-200 diam., with slender hyaline, closely ranked conidio-

phores which are somewhat variable in length, but mostly about

20-25 x 1.2 jx. The conidia, if strictly speaking such they are, are of

the same diameter and general appearance as the phores, resem¬

bling rod-like segments fragmented from them. The large air spaces

of the leaves are filled with a coarse ramifying mycelium which is

assumed to belong to the same fungus producing the acervuli.

Pastinaca sativa, collected at Madison June 18, bears small, black,

shining, subapplanate fruiting bodies containing hyaline micro¬

spores on the undersides of the leaflets. The distal portion of the

leaflet is first affected and the brown, wedge-shaped lesion is en¬

larged until the entire leaflet is involved. Possibly parasitic.

Senecio balsamitae, collected in Gov. Dodge State Park, Iowa Co.,

July 24, has epiphyllous, black, subglobose fruiting bodies approx.

125-175 jx diam., mostly empty, but a few with tiny microconidia.

The pycnidia are on small, cinerous, purple-bordered spots on other¬

wise healthy green leaves.

Danthonia spicata, collected at Parfrey’s Glen, Sauk Co., Sep¬

tember 24, has minute, punctate, closely clustered, shiny black, ap-

plante, sclerotoid structures on the upper surface of the green basal

leaves. The grass plants were growing in a large cushion of Leuco-

bryum glaucum which provided quite moist conditions and pre¬

sumably furthered development of the fungus which, while it is

probably not parasitic, no doubt had an adverse effect on the photo¬

synthetic activity of the host.

Euphorbia esula stems, collected near Middleton, Dane Co., Octo¬

ber 12, are heavily infected by a striking non-fruiting fungus which

appears definitely parasitic. The mycelium is composed of black,

thick-walled, pseudoparenchymatous cells which are components of

black, shiny, radiate-dendritic strands arranged to form numerous,

rounded, plate-like structures, largely intraepidermal, and about

1-2 mm. diam. The host tissue adjacent to and within the area of

infection is a dead white, affording a conspicuous contrast to the

black of the fungus.

Fraxinus americana leaves collected at Madison, August 4 bear

an interesting sterile fungus, not so far determined. It consists of

tiny, rounded, flattened to hemispherical structures composed of

1958]

Greene — Wisconsin Parasitic Fungi. XXIV

109

massed, moderately thick-walled, brown, parenchyma-like isodia-

metric cells about 6-8 y. The entire body varies from about 45-65 /x

diam. by about 15-30 /x in elevation. These bodies are on minute,

rounded, straw-colored spots surrounded by a dark purple border.

The light centers are not over .2 mm. diam., while the entire spot

including border runs from .3-5 mm. The spots are scattered to

crowded. In the latter case they are often confluent to form irregular

purplish patches, mostly around the midrib and other principal

veins. Probably parasitic, as the leaves are in the main healthy.

Solidago patula, collected at Parfrey’s Glen, Sauk C., Septem¬

ber 24, has a sclerotium-producing fungus on the leaves, perhaps

identical with one on Solidago altissima reported as Sclerotiwm

mendax Sacc. (Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci. 35:134. 1944). Although the

sclerotia are superficial, the mycelium from which they are pro¬

duced is firmly seated in the green leaf tissue and appears to be in a

definitely parasitic relationship.

Additional Hosts

The following hosts have not been previously recorded as bearing

the fungi mentioned in Wisconsin.

Erysiphe polygoni DC. on Ranunculus (yellow double-flowered,

cult.). Dane Co., Madison, July 13. The host probably cannot be

determined as to species, but it is one of the broad-leaved double-

flowered forms so commonly cultivated.

Erysiphe cichoracearum DC. on Scutellaria galericulata, Dane

Co., Madison, September 14, 1889. Coll. L. S. Cheney. This was

placed in the herbarium as E. galeopsidis, but it has the character¬

istic two-spored asci of E. cichoracearum. Also on Cosmos bipin -

natus (cult.). Dane Co., Madison, September 15. On Centaur ea

maculosa. Green Co., near Juda, October 3.

Sphaerotheca humuli (DC.) Burr, on Rhus copallina. Dane

Co., Madison, September 3.

Phyllactinia CORYLEA (Pers.) Karst, on Quercus ellipsoid alis.

Dane Co., Madison, October 8.

Cronartium comptoniae Arth, I on Pinus sylvestris (cult.).

Marathon Co., Town of Plover, May 17. Coll. Ray Weber.

Coleosporium SOLIDAGINIS (Schw.) Thum. II, III on Solidago

missouriensis. Dane Co., Madison, July 11. Although reported on

this host in a comprehensive list of Wisconsin parasitic fungi, there

is no mention of it elsewhere and I find no previous specimens in the

herbarium.

Gym NOSPORANGIUM GLOBOSUM Farl. Ill on Juniperus horizon -

talis. Green Co., near New Glarus, October 16, 1956. Det. G. B.

Cummins.

110 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

Puccinia caricis (Schum.) Schroet. II on Carex conoidea. Dane

Co., Madison, July 30.

Puccinia amphigena Diet. I on Smilacina stellata. Sheboygan

Co., Terry Andrae State Park, June 2. Coll, by J. W. Baxter who

used this material to successfully inoculate rust-free plants of Cala-

movilfa longifolia, producing uredia. This would seem to be the first

record of P. amphigena on Smilacina.

Puccinia angustata Peck I on Pycanthemum virginianum. Dane

Co., Madison, June 12, 1951; Hanerville, June 15, 1953. These col¬

lections were originally referred to Puccinia menthae, but J. W.

Baxter, who has made a special study of these rusts, considers them

to be P. angustata.

Puccinia liatridis (Webber) Bethel I on Liatris aspera var. in¬

termedia. Dane Co.. Madison, May 28, 1945. See the remarks in this

paper on Septoria liatridis on the same host.

Uromyces silphii (Burr.) Arth. I on Silphium laciniatum X

terebinthinaceum. Dane Co., Madison, June 19.

Pellicularia filamentosa (Pat.) Rogers on Euphorbia macu-

lata. Dane Co., Madison, August 19, 1956.

Ceratobasidium anceps (Bres. & Syd.) Jacks, on Salix petiol-

aris. Chippewa Co., New Auburn, September 13, 1956. Also on

Pyrola elliptica. Dane Co., Madison, June 21, 1943. Included with a

collection of undetermined Colletotrichum and not noted until

recently.

Phyllosticta minima (B. & C.) Underw. & Earle on Acer plata-

noides (cult.) Fond du Lac Co., Fond du Lac, August 16, 1912. Coll.

H. J. Baker. This specimen was in the Ricker Herbarium, recently

incorporated in the University of Wisconsin Herbarium.

Phyllosticta phomiformis Sacc. on Quercus ellipsoidalis. Dane

Co., Madison, August 5.

Phyllosticta decidua Ell. & Kell, on Circaea latifolia. Dane Co.,

Madison, July 13. On Plantago rugelii at Madison, July 28.

Sclerophoma Pithyophila (Cda.) Hoehn. on Pinus flexilis

(cult.). Columbia Co., Poynette State Game Farm, June 15, 1955.

Coll. R. F. Patton. Prominent on leaves still green below the affected

portions which are mostly apical. Probably parasitic. The tree was

said to have been almost denuded of foliage except for new growth.

Sclerophoma is considered by some authors to be synonymous with

Dothichiza.

Ascochyta compositarum J. J. Davis on Erechtites hieracifolia.

Dane Co., Madison, September 27. This'is the smaller-spored form,

earlier set aside as var. parva Davis. The lesions, however, are all

highly characteristic, regardless of spore size.

1958]

Greene — Wisconsin Parasitic Fungi. XXIV

111

Ascochyta sonchi (P. Henn.) Syd. on Sonchus arvensis. Dane

Co., Madison, August 10.

Darluca filum (Biv.) Cast, on Puccinia chloridis III on Boute-

loua curtipendula. Dane Co., Pine Bluff, September 17. On Puccinia

circaeae on Circaea latifolia. Dane Co., Madison, August 5. On Puc¬

cinia helianthi III on Helianthus strumosus. Dane Co., Madison,

August 16.

Stagonospora albescens J. J. Davis on Carex lasiocarpa. Dane

Co., Madison, July 31.

Stagonospora cirsii J. J. Davis on Cirsium discolor. Dane Co.,

Madison, September 2. The spores measure up to 35 x 8 /x, some¬

what larger than specified, but the lesions seem entirely char¬

acteristic.

Septoria musiva Peck on Populus alba. Dane Co., Madison,

August 4.

Septoria betulicola Peck on Betula populifolia (cult.). Dane

Co., Madison, July 4. This specimen has well-developed, noticeably

septate spores, up to 60 x 2.5 /x or more.

Septoria sii Rob. & Desm. on Carum carvi. Waukesha Co., near

Eagle, June 20.

Septoria melandrii Pass, on Lychnis chalcedonica (cult.). Dane

Co., Madison, July 4.

Septoria liatridis Ell. & Davis on Liatris aspera var. intermedia

(Lunell) Gaiser, Madison, June 12. This handsome variety is firmly

established and is spreading in the University of Wisconsin Arbo¬

retum. It is an escape from a nursery plot, set up some twenty-odd

years ago, and is characterized by definitely later blooming than the

species proper in the relatively northern Madison location. The

plants are also larger on the average and have noticeably pedicel¬

late, rather widely spaced flowering heads. This host was deter¬

mined some years ago by Gaiser whose monograph of Liatris

appeared in Rhodora in 1946.

Phaeoseptoria festucae var. muhlenbergiae R. Sprague on

Agropyron repens. Dane Co., Madison, July 30. The fungus appears

weakly parasitic on dead margins of otherwise living leaves.

Hainesia lythri (Desm.) Hoehn. on Ludvigia polycarpa. Dane

Co., Madison, September 14.

Cylindrosporium filipendulae Thum. on Spiraea vanhouttei

(cult.). Dunn Co., Falls City, September 10, 1956; also at Madison,

August 11, 1957.

Passalora fasciculata (C. & E.) Earle on Euphorbia maculata.

Dane Co., Madison, August 19, 1956.

112 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

Cladosporium AROMATICUM Ell. & Ev. on Rhus aromatica. Dane

Co., Madison, August 31.

Ramularia plantaginis Ell. & Mart, on Plantago lanceolata.

Sauk Co., Devil’s Lake, September 24.

Cercosporella nivea Ell. & Barth, on Solidago missouriensis.

Dane Co., Madison, July 11.

Cercospora cercidicola Ell. on Cercis canadensis. Grant Co.,

near Cassville, August 31. Coll. H. H. litis.

Cercospora zebrina Pass, on Trifolium arvense. Polk Co., Bal¬

sam Lake, July 16.

Cercospora violae Sacc. on Viola canadensis (cult.). Dane Co.,

Madison, July 14.

Helminthosporium sorokianum Sacc. ( H . sativum) on Bromus

ciliatus. Dane Co., Madison, August 20, 1949. Det. R. A. Shoe¬

maker. Originally reported as H. bromi Died.

Helminthosporium vagans Drechsler on Koeleria cristata. Dane

Co., Madison, June 15, 1951. Det. R. A. Shoemaker. This was dis¬

cussed in my Notes XVI (Amer. Midi. Nat. 48:746. 1952).

Tuberculina persicina (Ditm.) Sacc. on Puccinia convolvuli I

on Convolvulus sepium. Dane Co., Madison, July 14.

Additional Species

The fungi mentioned have not been previously reported as occur¬

ring in the state of Wisconsin.

Mycosphaerella nigerristigma Higgins. Septoria stage on

Prunus pennsylvanica. Douglas Co., Superior, Wisconsin Point,

September 11, 1956 ; also at Madison, August 2, 1957.

Puccinia farinacea Long var. azurea Baxter & Cummins II,

III on Salvia reflexa (lanceolata) . Green Co., near Albany, Septem¬

ber 4. Det. J. W. Baxter. Not hitherto reported on this host (see

Lloydia 14:221. 1951).

Puccinia chloridis Speg. 1 on Acerates hirtella, A. lanuginosa,

A. viridiflora, Asclepias syriaca, A. tuberosa, A. verticillata, III on

Bouteloua curtipendula. There are numerous Wisconsin collections,

formerly filed under Puccinia vexans Farl.

Puccinia dracunculi Fahrendorf II, III on Artemisia dracuncu-

loides. There are several collections from Madison in the Univer¬

sity of Wisconsin Herbarium. Originally reported as Puccinia

absinthii (Hedw. f.) DC.

Phyllosticta erythronii Cooke & Shaw on Erythronium albi-

dum. Green Co., Town of Spring Grove near Oakly, May 5, 1955.

Notes on this as an undetermined species of Phyllosticta appear in

1958]

Greene — Wisconsin Parasitic Fungi. XXIV

113

my Notes XXII and XXIII. The description of Cooke and Shaw

(Mycologia 44:796. 1952) was overlooked until recently.

Phyllosticta palustris Ell. & Dearn. on Stachys palustris.

Dane Co., Madison, August 15. The original description is very

brief, with no statement as to dimensions or other characters of the

pycnidia which, in this specimen, are black, subglobose, epiphyl-

lous, erumpent, approx. 125-175 fx. The conidia in the Wisconsin

material are slightly larger than specified, but overall it seems likely

that the assignment to P. palustris is correct.

Neottiospora umbelliferarum sp. nov.

Maculis griseo-brunneis, centris pallidioribus, marginatis vel

orbicularibus varie, ca. 0.25-0.5 cm. diam. ; pycnidiis gregariis,

epiphyllis, ostiolatis, nigris, muris crassis, subglobosis, ca. 190-

210 x 160-190 /a; conidiophoris confertis, brevo-cylindraceis, fere

obsoletis ; conidiis hyalinis, continuis, fusoideis vel late fusoideis,

12-) 15-20 (-22) x 4. 5-6. 5 /a, 2-, 3-, -4, vel 5-ciliatis distale; ciliis

divergentibus late, flexuosis nonnihil, ca. 15-30 x 0.5-0. 7 /a, varia-

bilibus.

Spots grayish-brown, centers somewhat paler, narrow marginal

to variously orbicular, approx. 0.25-0.5 cm. diam. ; pycnidia gre¬

garious, epiphyllous, ostiolate, black, thick-walled, subglobose,

approx. 190-210 x 160-190 /a; conidiophores crowded, short-

cylindric, almost obsolete; conidia hyaline, continuous, fusoid to

broadly fusoid, (12-) 15-20 (-22) x 4. 5-6. 5 /a, 2-, 3-, 4-, or 5-ciliate

distally; cilia widely diverging, somewhat flexuous, approx. 15-30 x

0. 5-0.7 fx, variably borne.

On living leaves of Oxypolis rigidior. Scuppernong Prairie near

Eagle, Waukesha County, Wisconsin, U. S. A., June 20, 1957.

As indicated in the description, the cilia are quite variably pro¬

duced, sometimes arising uniformly from the tip of the conidium,

but more often being borne in a staghorn branching manner where

three or more are present. That is to say, one cilium will be pro¬

duced from the tip of the conidium proper, while the others will be

formed as side branches of the first named, sometimes branching at

the same level, at other times not. There seems no doubt that this

striking fungus is parasitic. The sporiferous layer encompasses the

entire inner pycnidial surface except for a small zone about the

ostiole, and large numbers of conidia are formed.

Neottiospora geranii (Schroet.) comb. nov.

Dilophospora geranii Schroet. in “Ein Beitrag zur Kentniss der

nordischen Pilze.” Breslau 1881, p. 16.

This fungus occurs on Geranium maculatum in Wisconsin and

has been cited in Wisconsin lists as Dilophospora geranii. Since the

114 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

cilia are produced only from one end of the sopre, such an assign¬

ment cannot be correct.

Ascoehyta madisonensis sp. nov.

Maculis fuscis vel griseis, magnis et conspicuis, immarginatis,

ovalibus vel orbicularibus, confluentibus aliquoties, ca. 1-2 cm.

diam. ; pycnidiis epiphyllis, carneis vel pallido-brunneis, muris

tenuibus, ca. 125-150 /x diam., subglobosis, subzonatis in maculis;

conidiis hyalinis, subcylindraceis, rectis vel curvis leniter, unisep-

tatis, saepe biguttulatis, 8-12 (-14) x 2. 5-3. 5 fx.

Leaf spots dull brown to grayish, large and conspicuous, immargi-

nate, oval to rounded-orbicular, sometimes confluent, approx. 1-2

cm. diam. ; pycnidia epiphyllous, flesh-colored or pale brown, thin-

walled, approx. 125-150 /x diam., subglobose, subzonately arranged

on spots; conidia hyaline, subcylindric, straight to moderately

curved, uniseptate, often biguttulate, 8-12 (-14) x 2. 5-3. 5 /x.

On living leaves of Mertensia virginica. University of Wisconsin

Arboretum, Madison, Dane County, Wisconsin, U. S. A., May 28,

1957.

I have found no report of Ascoehyta on any species of Boragina-

ceae. It must be confessed that the erection of the species is based

principally on host relation considerations rather than on any

highly distinctive morphology.

Septogloeum oxysporum Sacc., Bomm. & Rouss. on Glycerin

striata. Sauk Co., Parfrey’s Glen, Town of Merrimac, July 19, 1951.

Although this is immature, the fungus concerned is such a seem¬

ingly distinct entity, judging from western United States and

Alaskan specimens, that it is felt the report is justified. Sprague, in

his “Diseases of Cereals and Grasses in North America” gives an

extensive discussion of S. oxysporum.

Botrytis viciae sp. nov.

Maculis conspicuis, zonatis, centris ferrugineis, marginibus

obscuro-incanis, ovalibus vel orbicularibus, ca. 4-6 x 2-3 mm. ; coni¬

diis subhyalinis vel pallido-brunneis, globosis vel subglobosis, 16-

21 x 17-24 /x, glabris, muris tenuibus, ca. 1 /x, granulosis; conidio-

phoris pallido-brunneis vel brunneis, variabiiibus, ca. 300-450 x 11-

14 fx, saepe inflatis infra, 2-3-septatis infra ramis, prope 2-3-septatis

supra ramis ; fere 3 ramis, 1 terminalibus, 2 lateribus, interdum

solum 1 lateribus ; conidiophoris apicibus inflatis leviter, sterig-

matibus digitatis-cruciformibus, fere 4-6 conidiis acervatim; con¬

idiophoris amphigenis, sparsis vel gregariis.

Spots conspicuous, somewhat zonate, centers dull reddish, bor¬

ders grayish, sometimes with a narrow darker margin, oval or

irregularly orbicular, approx. 4-6 x 2-3 mm. ; conidia subhyaline to

1958]

Greene — Wisconsin Parasitic Fungi. XXIV

115

pale brown, globose or subglobose, 16-21 x 17-24 /t, smooth, wall

thin, about 1 ft, cell content slightly granular, occasionally a slight

protrusion at hilum ; conidiophores pale brown to brown, variable,

approx., 300-450 x 11-14 jx, often inflated to 20 n or slightly more

toward base, 2-3-septate below point of branching, closely 2-3-

septate above this point; usually three branches, consisting of a

short terminal extension of the main stalk with two side branches

departing from it at right angles, occasionally only a single lateral

branch; conidiophore tips slightly inflated with short digitate-

cruciform sterigmata on which the conidia are borne, about 4-6 in

a cluster; conidiophores amphigenous, scattered to gregarious.

On living leaves of Vida villosa. University of Wisconsin Arbo¬

retum, Madison, Dane County, Wisconsin, U. S. A., June 15, 1957.

This has been noted on a number of occasions in the same gen¬

eral area and seems to be a strong parasite. It was briefly dis¬

cussed in my Notes III (Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci. 35:120. 1944). As

might be expected, the lower leaves are usually the most heavily

infected, while those near the growing point are clean. Infected

leaflets usually have one to three spots, with the entire leaflet be¬

coming finally involved and dropping off.

Didymaria linariae Pass, on Linaria vulgaris. Sauk Co., Par-

frey’s Glen, Town of Merrimac, September 24. Not reported in Sey¬

mour as occurring in North America.

Ramularia parva sp. nov.

Maculis conspicuis, orbicularibus, 3-7 mm. diam., sordido-

brunneis, subzonatis, marginibus angustis, elevatis, fuscis, cum

haloibus rufo-purpureis ; conidiophoris amphigenis, sparsis vel ag-

gregatis laxe, continuis vel 1-septatis raro, hyalinis, rectis vel sub-

geniculatis raro, apicibus denticulatis frequenter, 12-25 x 3-4 j± ;

conidiis hyalinis, cylindraceis vel subfusoideis, continuis plerumque,

1-septatis interdum, catenulatis, (10-) 15-22 (-28) /x.

Spots conspicuous, orbicular, 3-7 mm. diam., dull brownish,

subzonate, with narrow raised dark brown border, the whole sur¬

rounded by a reddish-purple halo ; conidiophores amphigenous, scat¬

tered or loosely aggregated, continuous or rarely 1 -septate, hyaline,

simple, or rarely weakly geniculate, apex frequently denticulate,

12-25 x 3-4 /x ; conidia hyaline, cylindric or subfusoid, mostly con¬

tinuous, occasionally 1-septate, catenulate, (10-) 15-22 (-28) /*.

On living leaves of Hieracium longipilum. University of Wiscon¬

sin Arboretum, Madison, Dane County, Wisconsin, U. S. A., July 25,

] 957.

Although the spots are very noticeable, the fungus itself is ex¬

tremely inconspicuous and apt to be missed in an ordinary hand

lens examination in the field. R. parva, in very small amount, was

116 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

collected near the type station in 1944 and reported on in my Notes

XII (Amer. Midi. Nat. 41 :730. 1949).

Cercospora lychnidis sp. nov.

Maculis orbicularibus, parvis, 2-3 mm. diam., pallido-brunneis,

marginibus angustis, fuscis, elevatis leviter; conidiophoris am-

phigenis, fasciculatis laxis, basibus stromaticis parvis ; fasciis cum

5-15 conidiophoris divergentibus, laxe multigeniculatis, pallido-

brunneis Claris, 120-330 x 4-4.5 n, 1-4-septatis ; conidiis hyalinis,

flexuosis, subacicularibus vel obclavatis anguste, obscure multi-

septatis, basibus truncatis, 80-260 x 2.5-4 p.

Spots orbicular, small, 2-3 mm. diam., pale brown with slightly

elevated, narrow, darker border ; conidiophores amphigenous,

loosely fascicled from a small stromatic base, about 5-15 divergent

conidiophores per fascicle, laxly multigeniculate, clear light brown,

120-350 x 4-4.5 yu., 1-4-septate; conidia hyaline, flexuous, subacicular

or narrowly obclavate, obscurely multiseptate, base truncate, 80-

260 x 2.5-4 fi.

On living leaves of Lychnis coronaria (cult.). Madison, Dane

County, Wisconsin, U. S. A., August 4, 1957. Also on Lychnis chal-

cedonica (cult.) . Same station and date.

Although the specimen on Lychnis coronaria is here designated

as the type, the characters and measurements actually are based on

both host specimens. The conidiophore measurements were taken

from the underside of the leaf. In the non-hairy L. chalcedonica

especially, phores produced on the upper surface are shorter and

more compactly fascicled from a somewhat better developed stro¬

matic base and the conidia tend to be shorter. This points to the

fact that absolute measurements, particularly as to length, may not

always be very reliable for descriptive purposes in exogenous fungi

such as Cercospora. Chupp, in his monograph records no Cerco-

sporae on Lychnis or Silene. C. lychnidis is noteworthy for the long,

lax, yet consistently geniculate conidiophores. Geniculation extends

from the tip almost to the base of the phores, with long “inter-

geniculate” spaces, so that the tortuous effect produced where

geniculations are close together is almost lacking here.

Cercospora leonuri Stevens & Solheim on Leonurus cardiaca.

Dane Co., Madison, July 13. Described originally on material from

Costa Rica (Mycologia 23:395. 1931). The Madison specimen

matches the description and illustration quite closely.

Cercospora nepetae Tehon on Nepeta hederacea. Dane Co.,

Madison, August 16. This specimen corresponds well with the

emended description of the fungus, as it appears on Nepeta cat aria,

given by Chupp in his monograph.

1958]

Greene — Wisconsin Parasitic Fungi. XXIV

117

Curvularia geniculata (Tr. & Earle) Boedijn on Eragrostis

spectabilis. Dane Co., Madison, September 8, 1945. Det. R. A. Shoe¬

maker. Originally reported as Helminthosporium rostratum Drechs-

ler. Also on Sporobolus asper at Madison, August 1, 1957. Det.

R. Sprague. The fungus appears very actively parasitic on this host.

Helminthosporium yamadai Nisikado on Panicum capillar e.

Waukesha Co., Eagleville, August 18, 1942. Also on Panicum impli-

catum. Dane Co., Madison, August 8, 1949. Det. R. A. Shoemaker.

Originally reported as H. sativum Pamrn., King & Bakke.

Helminthosporium hadrotrichoides Ell. & Ev. on Eragrostis

cilianensis. Dane Co., Madison, August 11, 1947. Also on Eragrostis

pectinacea. Dane Co., Madison, August 6, 1944. Det. R. A. Shoe¬

maker.

Helminthosporium tritici-repentis (Died.) Died, on Agro-

pyron repens. Dane Co., Madison, May 25, 1943. Det. R. A. Shoe¬

maker. Originally reported as H. sativum Pamm., King & Bakke.

Helminthosporium tuberosum Atk. on Secale cereale. Dane

Co., Madison, November 18, 1948. Det. R. A. Shoemaker. This was

reported as H. secalis Whitehead & Dickson and is the type

specimen.

Helminthosporium flagelloideum Atk. on Scirpus acutus.

Dane Co., Madison, August 8, 1952. Det. R. A. Shoemaker. Dis¬

cussed in my Notes XVIII (Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci. 42:74. 1953).

Also on Carex sp. (C. convoluta-C. rosea group). Green Co., near

Albany, May 8, 1948. Shoemaker states that these both correspond

well with the description and that, although Atkinson mentions the

host as Panicum (?) , it is very likely it was actually a sedge.

NOTES ON WISCONSIN PARASITIC FUNGI. XXV

H. C. Greene

Department of Botany , University of Wisconsin, Madison

These notes are based principally on collections made during the

season of 1958 which was, owing to drouth conditions, unfavorable

for the development of fungi. Unless otherwise noted, collections

referred to were made in 1958.

Unidentified powdery mildews have been found on 1) Brassica

campestris. Dane Co., Madison, October 21, 1957; 2) Amelanchier

canadensis, Madison, October 15; 3) Multiflora rose, Madison,

August 6; 4) Lycopus virginicus, Madison, September 4; 5) Heli-

anthus giganteus. Juneau Co., Petenwell Wilderness Park, July 16;

6) Lactuca floridana. Green Co., New Glams Woods Roadside Park,

August 26. These hosts have not been recorded previously as bear¬

ing powdery mildews in Wisconsin.

Parodiella perisporioides (B. & C.) Speg. has been found in

mature condition on Desmodium acuminatum, August 26, in the

New Glarus Woods Roadside Park, Green Co. The only previous

Wisconsin specimen on this host was an immature one, now in the

National Fungus Collections, collected by Pammel 75 years ago at

La Crosse.

Ophiodothis haydeni (B. & C.) Sacc. on Aster lucidulus (cult.),

collected at Madison, September 28, by G. Latch, bears rod-shaped

microconidia, about 4-5 x 0.7 y, in profusion within the crowded,

flattened fruiting bodies. This is the first Wisconsin specimen seen

bearing spores of any sort. It seems probable that the production of

microconidia preceds the initiation of the perfect stage. According

to Ainsworth and Bisby, Ophiodothis should be referred to Balansia

Speg.

Mycosphaerella sp. occurs on Phyllosticta decidua-Yike lesions

on leaves of Ratibida pinnata, collected at Madison, July 19. The

spots are rounded, thin, translucent, about 1.5-2 mm. diam. ; peri-

thecia gregarious, black, subglobose, approx. 80-115 /x in diam., the

walls made up of large, isodiametric, pseudoparenchymatous cells ;

asci hyaline, clavate or curved-clavate, 37-41 x 10-11.5 /*; asco-

spores 12-14 x 3.5-4 ji. Parasitism and relation to host questionable.

Mycosphaerella sp. occurs on small, angled, whitish, subtrans-

lucent spots on leaves of Aster umbellatus, collected at Madison,

August 9. The perithecia are epiphyllous, usually only one to a

119

120 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and, Letters [Vol. 47

spot — many of the spots have no fruiting on them— blackish, sub-

globose about 125-150 /x diam. The asci are curved-cylindric, 40-

50 x 7-8 /x ; ascospores hyaline, arcuate, 12-14 x 2.7-3 fx. Associated

with the Mycosphaerella, and indistinguishable under the hand lens,

is a Phyllosticta with hyaline, rod-shaped to subfusoid conidia,

4-9 x 1.5-2 /i. This obviously bears no relation to the very distinct

Phyllosticta astericola Ell. & Ev. on this host.

Leptosphaeria sp. is present on rounded, sunken, cinerous spots,

about 1 mm. diam. on leaves of Monarda fistulosa, collected at Mad¬

ison, July 3. The perithecia are scattered, black, subglobose, approx.

100-115 /x diam.; asci are 10-12 x 60-70 /x, broadly clavate; asco¬

spores are olivaceous, broadly fusoid, 4-celled, the penultimate cell

somewhat enlarged, 23-25 x 5-5.5 /x. Appearing probably parasitic.

Dutch elm disease continues to spread and increase in Wisconsin

and, from the first case, discovered at Beloit in July, 1956, the in¬

fection has now, in the fall of 1958, spread to ten counties, includ¬

ing Dane, Green, Jefferson, Kenosha, Milwaukee, Ozaukee, Racine,

Rock, Walworth and Waukesha, involving more than 2000 trees.

It may be noted that the counties concerned represent a solid block

confined to the southeastern and south central part of the state.

Phyllostictae, undetermined as to species, have been found on

various hosts, as indicated in the following descriptive notes: 1) On

Calamagrostis canadensis. Dane Co., Madison, October 17. The

lesions are sordid straw-colored to dull purplish-brown, variable in

size, irregularly elongate, often confluent and conspicuous on the

still green leaves. Pycnidia scattered, very inconspicuous, produced

entirely within and not distorting the host. Pycnidia dull brown,

flattened-fusoid to broadly ellipsoid, approx. 100-150 ,/x in long-

dimension, 60-90 fx in short dimension, without well-marked ostiole,

but seeming to have an opening to the adaxial leaf surface. The

conidia are rod-shaped, hyaline, 4-7 x .8-1.2 /x, borne on slender,

hyaline conidiophores which are closely ranked over the entire inner

surface of the pycnidium. Appearing parasitic, but, as a very late

season development, of uncertain status. There is no evidence of an

incipient ascomycetous stage. 2) On Arissema atrorubens collected

at Gibraltar Bluff, Columbia Co., June 17. The translucent, rounded

to oval spots are approx. 4-7 mm. diam., pale cinereous-brown with

slightly darker borders ; pycnidia pallid, scattered, flattened to sub-

globose, about 90-120 /x diam. ; conidia hyaline, mostly short-

cylindric, occasionally subfusoid, 2.5-4 x 4-8 /x. 3) On Coming ia

orientalis near Cross Plains, Dane Co., June 28. The spots are

whitish, thin, translucent, irregularly rounded or elongate, with

narrow raised border, 1-3 (-4) mm. in long diam. Pycnidia are gre¬

garious to clustered, medium- to dark-brown, subglobose, mostly

150-175 jx diam., but exceptionally up to 200 /x. Conidia are rather

1958]

Greene — Wisconsin Parasitic Fungi. XXV

121

sparingly produced, hyaline, subcylindric, subfusoid, or occasion¬

ally allantoid, 3-5.5 x 1.5-2. 5 /x. There are only one or two spots per

leaf as a rule, and generally but a single infected leaf was borne on

any one plant. Dubiously parasitic, but consistently present on many

plants over a wide area. 4) On sordid-brownish lesions on leaflets

of Rubus strigosus, collected near Pine Bluff, Dane Co., July 31. The

lesions are variable from orbicular to wedge-shaped, up to 2 cm.

diam. The subglobose pycnidia are very inconspicuous, 60-85 y

diam., deeply imbedded in the tissue and seeming to merge with it,

discernible only by strong transmitted light. They tend to be clus¬

tered in the centers of the spots. The conidia are hyaline, cylindric,

approx. 6-10 x 2-3 y. Possibly the precursor of a perfect stage. The

conidia are similar in dimension to Phyllosticta variabilis Peck, but

in specimens in the Wisconsin Crvptogamic Herbarium the pycnidia

of that species are easily seen in surface view with a hand lens.

5) On large, pale-brown, wedge-shaped areas at the apices of leaf¬

lets of Agrimonia gryposepala, collected at Madison, July 11. The

epiphyllous pycnidia are blackish-brown, subglobose, scattered,

approx. 125-150 y diam.; conidia hyaline, fusoid, 5-9 x 2-3 y. 6) In

small amount on leaves of Lupinus perennis, collected at Madison,

June 19. This is not Phyllosticta ferax Ell. & Ev., common in north¬

west America. The rounded spots are 2-3 mm. diam., pallid brown

with a narrow reddish-brown border. The amphigenous pycnidia

are gregarious, subglobose, sooty, the ostiole marked by a conspicu¬

ous ring of darker cells, diam. approx. 100-125 y\ conidia are hya¬

line, broadly ellipsoid, ovoid, or short-cylindric, 2. 5-3. 5 x 4-7 y,

often biguttulate, but with no evidence of septation. 7) On Aralia

racemosa at Madison, September 13, 1957. Epiphyllous on yellow-

brown spots; pycnidia sooty black, subglobose, about 100 y diam.;

conidia hyaline, cylindric with rounded ends, 5-8 x 2.5-3 ^.8) On

Asclepias incarnata at Madison, September 14, 1957. Hypophyllous ;

spots sordid brownish, orbicular, about 1.5 cm. diam. ; pycnidia im¬

perfectly formed, dull brownish, closely gregarious, about 75-125 y

diam. ; conidia hyaline, slender-cylindric, approx. 4-6 x 2-3 y.

Ascochyta sp. is present on Pachypsylla galls on leaves of Celtis

occidentalis, collected at Madison, October 10. The pycnidia are

sordid amber-colored, scattered to gregarious, flattened, approx.

100-175 fx diam., almost superficial; conidia are hyaline, obtuse,

cylindric, 9-12 x 2. 5-3. 5 y. A rather high percentage of the conidia

lack septa, and these are mostly smaller.

Ascochyta (or Stagonospora) occurred on languishing leaves of

Barbarea vulgaris, collected at Madison, May 19. The subglobose,

olivaceous pycnidia are about 140-150 y diam. The spores are hya¬

line, slightly to strongly curved, subcylindric to subfusoid, uni-

septate so far as observed, 10-18 x 2.5-3 /x.

122 W isconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

Ascochyta sp., well-characterized, but in small amount, occurred

on Euphorbia esula near Cross Plains, Dane Co., June 28. The tiny

white spots bear only one or two pycnidia per spot. The pycnidia

are black, subglobose, approx. 150-175 y diam. The majority of the

conidia seen were continuous, but many showed a well-defined

septum. They are subhyaline, ovoid or short-cylindric, 6-8 x 2.5-

3.5 y. I have found no report of any Ascochyta on Euphorbia, other

than Ascochyta euphorbiae Lasch, which is actually Septoria

euphorbiae (Lasch) Desm.

Conioth yrium sp. occurs on aeciae of Puccinia ellisiana Thum.

(on Viola pedata) collected June 17 at Gibraltar Bluff, Columbia

Co. The sooty conidia are 4-8 x 3-4 y, broadly ellipsoid or short

cylindric. The relationship is uncertain.

Darluca filum (Biv.) Cast, has overrun sori of Puccinia dioicae

P. Magn. I on Oenothera biennis, collected at Madison, July 11, to

add another to a slowly growing list of examples of this hyper¬

parasite on aecia, as opposed to the usual uredial substratum.

Stagonospora sp. occurred on leaves of Scleria triglomerata at

Madison, July 5. The long-oval spots, approx. .7-1.5 cm., have dark

reddish borders, with paler central portions and usually extend from

margin to margin of the narrow blade. The scattered pycnidia are

globose, sooty, 80-100 y diam., the spores hyaline, cylindric, 13-

18 x 3-4 y, obscurely 1-3 septate.

Stagonospora on Verbena hastata, collected at Madison, July 20,

is, in microscopic characters, very similar to Stagonospora verbenae

H. C. Greene (Amer. Midi. Nat. 48:52. 1952) described on Verbena

stricta, but the leaf spots differ in being translucent, more of the

Phyllosticta decidua type.

Marssonina thomasiana (Sacc.) Magn. has been listed as

doubtfully present on Celastrus scandens in Wisconsin on the basis

of a specimen collected at Blue River, Grant Co., by J. J. Davis in

June 1929, which was at first referred to Evonymus but, according

to a penciled note on the packet, was later determined as Celastrus.

Davis evidently felt uncertain about the specimen, for he did not

publish on it. In the summer of 1958 good specimens were found on

C. scandens at three stations in southern Wisconsin, at Madison,

Dane Co., at Tower Hill State Park, Iowa Co., and at Gibraltar

Bluff, Columbia Co.

Ramularia chimaphilae Greene on Chimaphila umbellata was

described in my Notes XI (Amer. Midi. Nat. 41:723. 1949), with

the statement that it was reminiscent of certain species of Septo-

cylindrium. J. A. Parmelee of the Canadian Science Service, who

has been making a study of parasites of the Ericaceae, considers

that R. chimaphilae should be referred to Septocylindrium, and

1958]

Greene — Wisconsin Parasitic Fungi. XXV

123

points out that it is very similar to S. leucum Bayl.-Ell. & Stansf.

(Trans. Brit. Mycol. Soc. 8 :249. 1923) .

Cercospora sp., collected in small amount on Conringia orientalis

near Cross Plains, Dane Co., June 28, seems close to Cercospora

erysimi J. J. Davis, but the Cercosporae on Cruciferae seem to be

not well characterized taxonomically. The current specimen has

conidia which are truncate at base, subobtuse at tip, slightly curved,

multiseptat.e, slender-clavate, about 40-50 ^ long.

Cercosfora silphii Ell. & Ev. normally occurs on small, dark,

squarish or oblong leaf spots, about 1-2 mm. diam. However, in a

collection on Silphium laciniatum made near Orfordville, Rock Co.,

in July, the spots are orbicular, dark purplish-brown, about 1 cm.

in diam., very conspicuous and striking.

Euphorbia esula stems, collected near Middleton, Dane Co., Octo¬

ber 12, 1957, and reported on in my Notes XXIV as bearing a con¬

spicuous non-fruiting fungus, were collected again at the same sta¬

tion in June 1958, after overwintering. Sections showed an imma¬

ture Ascomycete, as well as an imperfect stage with cylindric, hya¬

line, guttulate conidia, 1-3-septate, 10-16 x 3-5 n, apparently pro¬

duced from sporiferous layers, without well-developed conidio-

phores. Incubation in a moist chamber failed to induce further

development of the ascomycetous stage.

Additional Hosts

The following hosts have not been previously recorded as bearing

the fungi mentioned in Wisconsin.

Albugo Candida (Pers.) 0. Ktze. on Brassica arvensis

( B . kaber) . Dane Co., Madison, July 14. Also on Conringia orien¬

talis. Dane Co., near Cross Plains, June 28.

Erysiphe graminis DC. Conidia on Cinna arundinacea. Rock

Co., near Avon, September 2.

Sphaerotheca humuli (DC.) Burr, on Rosa lucida (R. virgin-

ica) (cult.). Jefferson Co., Waterloo, October 9. Coll. D. L. Coyier.

Rosenscheldia heliopsidis (Schw.) Theiss. & Syd. on stems of

Aster pilosus. Dane Co., Madison, October 28, 1957. Reported in

Seymour as occurring on the closely related Aster multi floras (eri-

coides) . Additional material, which had overwintered in the field,

was gathered in the spring of 1958 and placed in a moist chamber

where typical asci and spores developed. Also on Helianthus gigan-

teus. Juneau Co., Petenwell Wilderness Park, July 16. The conidial

phase, Phyllosticta helianthi Ell. & Ev., is likewise present.

Pseudoplea trifolii (Rostr.) Petr, on Medicago lupulina. Dane

Co., Madison, July 4. The numerous gregarious perithecia are on

124 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

rather extensive dead areas, for there are no sharply defined spots

in this collection.

Puccinia pygmaea Erikss. II on Koeleria cristata. Dane Co., near

Mazomanie, July 5, 1929, coll. J. J. Davis; Sauk Co., Ferry Bluff,

July 7, 1945. Originally determined as P. liatridis (Webber) Bethel.

This is P. koeleriae Arth. which Prof. G. B. Cummins regards as

synonymous with P. pygmaea.

Puccinia sporoboli Arth. II, III on Calamovilfa longifolia. Mar¬

quette Co., near Montello, September 12, 1937. Coll. N. C. Fassett.

Also from Sheboygan Co., near Oostburg, October 9, 1949. Both

these specimens were first determined as Puccinia amphigena Diet,

and the Montello specimen formed the basis for the report of P. am¬

phigena in Wisconsin. According to Prof. G. B. Cummins, the Oost¬

burg specimen is a mixture of P. sporoboli and P. amphigena, so

the latter retains its Wisconsin listing. Cummins has found that

many of the standard American exsiccati, issued as P. amphigena

on Calamovilfa, are actually P. sporoboli.

Puccinia schedonnardi Kell. & Sw. II, III on Muhlenbergia

schreberi. Dane Co., near Cross Plains, September 5.

Puccinia caricina DC. Ill on Carex typhina. Grant Co., Bridge¬

port, September 11, 1929. Coll. E. P. Breakey. On a phanerogamic

specimen in the University of Wisconsin Herbarium.

Puccinia seymouriana Arth. I on Asclepias purpurascens. Ju¬

neau Co., Meadow Valley, July 16.

Gymnosporangium globosum Farl. I on Crataegus lavallei

(cult.) . Dane Co., Madison, September 21.

Entyloma compositarum Farl. on Bidens cernua. Dane Co.,

Madison, July 12. A scanty specimen, but characteristic. Evidently

rarely collected on Bidens in any locality. Savile, in his study of

Entyloma on North American Compositae, cites only two specimens.

There is a single earlier Wisconsin collection on Bidens vulgata.

Schizonella melanogramma (DC.) Schroet. on Carex dew-

eyana. Columbia Co. Park at Gibraltar Bluff, near Okee, June 17.

Phyllosticta decidua Ell. & Kell, on TJrtica dioica. Dane Co.,

Madison, July 26. Also on Verbena urticaefolia. Madison, July 3.

Phyllosticta nebulosa Sacc. on Lychnis chalcedonica (cult.).

Dane Co., Madison. August 24. In this specimen the orbicular spots

are reddish-brown with paler centers, very conspicuous, .7-1.5 cm.

diam., subzonate ; pycnidia epiphyllous, tending to be concentrically

arranged; conidia obtuse, cylindric, or rarely subfusoid, 6—1 1 x 2.5-

3.5 [a. This seems without much doubt to be the fungus described as

P. lychnidis, by A. Bondarzew, on Lychnis chalcedonica from the

Caucasus, which had spores 6-8 x 3-3.6 /x, rarely 10 x 4 /x. As ex-

1958J

Greene — Wisconsin Parasitic Fungi. XXV

125

plained in my Notes XV (Amer. Midi. Nat. 48:45. 1952) it is my

opinion that Phyllostictae in this general range of dimensions and

hosts should all be referred to P. nebulosa.

Phyllosticta CORNICOLA (DC.) Rabh. on Cornus femina. Dane

Co., Madison, September 16. Septoria cornicola Desm., so wide¬

spread on this host, occurs in close association, confusing the pic¬

ture. Also on Cornus alternifolia at Madison, September 15. An

earlier report (Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci. 35:129. 1944) of this species

on Cornus alternifolia is now considered to be in error, and the

specimen does not seem to correspond well with any Phyllosticta so

far described on Cornus. In this 1944 specimen the spots are

rounded, cinereous, with narrow purple borders, small, about 1-1.5

diam. and ranged along the principal leaf veins ; pycnidia black, sub-

globose, epiphyllous, 75-90 ^ diam., one to five per spot; conidia

hyaline, short-cylindric, 4-5.5 x 1.5-2. 5

Asscochyta lophanthi J. J. Davis on Blephilia hirsuta. Vernon

Co., Champion Valley near Hillsboro, July 17.

Stagonospora bromi Smith & Ramsb. on Bromus japonicus.

Dane Co., Madison, July 4.

Septoria asclepiadicola Ell. & Ev. on Asclepias purpurascens.

Juneau Co., Meadow Valley, July 16. Each and every Septoria spot

bears old sori of Puccinia seymouriana Arth. I on the reverse, indi¬

cating the later development of the Septoria. However, no such con¬

dition has ever been noted in the numerous specimens of S. asclep¬

iadicola on other species of Asclepias.

Hainesia lythri (Desm.) Hoehn. on Steironema ciliatum. Iowa

Co., Tower Hill State Park, August 13. One of the stages of Pezi-

zella lythri (Desm.) Shear & Dodge. The other, Sclerotiopsis con-

cava (Desm.) Shear & Dodge, has been reported on this host in

Wisconsin.

Cylindrosporium SPIRAECOLA Ell. & Ev. on X Spiraea billiardi

(cult.). Dane Co., Madison, July 10. The host is a hybrid between

the West American S', douglasii Hook, and a South European

species.

Helminthosporium sorokianum Sacc. on Elymus villosus. Sauk

Co., Parfrey’s Glen, Town of Merrimac, September 24, 1957.

Cercospora rosicola Pass, on Multiflora rose (cult.). Dane Co.,

Madison, August 24. Also on Rosa heliophila ( R . pratincola) . Madi¬

son, August 25.

126 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

Additional Species

The fungi mentioned have not been previously reported as occur¬

ring in the state of Wisconsin.

Phyllosticta tenebrosa sp. nov.

Maculis magnis, orbicularibus, 1-4 cm. diam., fuligineis, centris

pallidioribus leviter; pycnidiis gregariis, pallido-brunneis, muris

tenuibus, subglobosis vel complanatis aliquantum, 125-165 jx diam.;

conidiis hyalinis, cylindraceis, late ellipsoideis vel subfusoideis,

rectis vel curvis leviter, 5-8 x 2-3.5 /x ; conidiophoris hyalinis, con-

fertis, brevibus, fere obsoletis.

Spots large, orbicular, 1-4 cm. diam., dull black with slightly

paler central portions ; pycnidia gregarious, pale brown, thin-walled,

subglobose or somewhat flattened, 125-165 jx diam. ; conidia hya¬

line, cylindric, broadly ellipsoid or subfusoid, straight or slightly

curved, 5-8 x 2-3.5 /x; conidiophores hyaline, crowded, short, almost

obsolete.

On living leaves of Ranunculus septentrionalis. Sugar River bot¬

toms near Avon, Rock County, Wisconsin, U. S. A., September 2,

1958.

Ultimately entire leaves become involved and killed back, so that

the fungus is evidently a strong parasite. Very many pycnidia are

borne on the larger spots and they are occasionally subzonately

arranged. The pycnidia are very numerous, as stated, but are also

very inconspicuous except by transmitted light.

Sphaeropsis astericola, sp. nov.

Maculis rufo-brunneis, immarginatis, orbicularibus, 4-6 mm.

diam. ; pycnidiis sparsis vel gregariis, amphigenis, plerumque epi-

phyllis, nigris, subglobosis, 135-160 jx diam.; conidiophoris hya¬

linis, exilibus, 6-8 x 2-2.5 jx; conidiis claro-brunneis, ovoideis, ellip¬

soideis late, vel subfusoideis, 9-15 x 5-7.5 [x.

Spots reddish-brown, immarginate, orbicular, 4-6 mm. diam. ;

pycnidia scattered or gregarious, amphigenous, mostly epiphyllous,

black, subglobose, 135-160 jx diam.; conidiophores hyaline, slender,

6-8 x 2-2.5 fx', conidia clear brown, ovoid, broadly ellipsoid, or sub¬

fusoid, 9-15 x 5-7.5 jx.

On living leaves of Aster shortii. Chicago & Northwestern R. R.

right-of-way at Warner Beach adjacent to Maple Bluff, Madison,

Dane County, Wisconsin, U. S. A., September 27, 1958.

This fungus appears to be parasitic despite the fact that many

of the spots have been mined by insects. There is no sign of any

other fungus, or any of the usual saprophytes, which might be ex¬

pected to develop if there were no parasitic relation between fungus

and host.

1958]

Greene — Wisconsin Parasitic Fungi. XX V

127

Ascochyta dulcamarae Bubak on Solanum dulcamara. Dane

Co., Madison, July 20. The specimen corresponds closely to the de¬

scription. Not reported for North America by Seymour.

Cercoseptoria capsellae (Ell. & Ev.) comb. nov.

Cylindrosporium capsellae Ell. & Ev. Jour. Mycol. 3:130. 1887.

The small, compact hyphal masses on which the condia are borne

are actually elevated, and hence this species cannot properly be

maintained as a Cylindrosporium.

Amphichaeta rosicola sp. nov.

Maculis pallido- vel languido-brunneis, marginibus rubricosis an-

gustis, orbicularibus, .3-1 cm. diam. ; acervulis epiphyllis, appla-

natis, fumosis, subzonatis, sublinearibus, ellipsoideis vel rotundatis,

ca. 100-200 p diam., peridiis tenuibus, brevi fractis ; conidiophoris

pallido-olivaceis, exilibus, confertis, 10-15 fx longis; conidiis bi-

coloribus, cellis terminalibus subhyalinis, cellis centris olivaceis,

subarcuatis, 4-cellis, 3-septatis, 15-20 x (3.5-) 4-5 (-5.5) p, setulis

2, lateralibus, uno in singulis cellis terminalibus, hyalinis, exilibus,

rigidis, brevibus, ca. 2-3 p longis.

Spots pale to dull brown, with narrow reddish borders, orbicular,

.3-1 cm. diam. ; acervuli epiphyllous, flattened, dull black, subzon-

ately arranged, sublinear, ellipsoid, or rounded, approx. 100-200 p

in long diam., peridium thin, soon ruptured ; conidiophores pallid

olivaceous, slender, closely ranked, 10-15 p long; conidia bicolored,

terminal cells subhyaline, central cells olivaceous, subarcuate,

4-celled, 3-septate, 15-20 x (3.5-) 4-5 (-5.5) p, setulae 2, one pro¬

duced laterally from each terminal cell, hyaline, slender, rigid, short,

approx. 2-3 p long.

On living leaves of Rosa heliophila Greene ( R . pratincola

Greene). University of Wisconsin Arboretum, Madison, Dane

County, Wisconsin, U. S. A., August 25, 1958.

One of the bristle-like setulae is usually attached at a wider angle

than the other. In occasional spores only one bristle is well-

developed, which would seem to indicate that this genus may not be

sharply distinct from Monochaetia Sacc. Monochaetia discosioides

(Ell. & Ev.) Sacc. has been reported on Rosaceae in Wisconsin.

Amphichaeta rosicola appears parasitic but, in view of the sapro¬

phytic nature of other fungi in this group, it seems possible that it

is secondary, or only weakly parasitic.

Cladosporium elsinoes sp. nov.

Conidiophoris claro-brunneis, sparsis vel confertis solute, non

fasciculatis, ramosis aliquoties, flexuosis, subgeniculatis, multi-

septatis, muris succrassulis, plerumque ca. 150 x 4-5 p, raro 300 p ;

128 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

conidiis olivaceo-brunneis Claris, levibus, muris tenuibus, cylindra-

ceis, brevo-cylindraceis, vel ovoideis aliquoties, 9-15 x 5-6 /x, uni-

septatis plerumque, raro 2-3-septatis.

Conidiophores clear intense brown, scattered to loosely clustered,

not fascicled, occasionally branched, flexuous, subgeniculate, multi-

septate, moderately thick-walled, mostly about 150 x 4-5 /x, rarely

up to 300 (j.; conidia clear olivaceous-brown, smooth, thin-walled,

cylindric, short-cylindric, or sometimes ovoid, 9-15 x 5-6 /x, mostly

uniseptate, rarely 2-3-septate.

On fructifications of Elsinoe ivisconsinensis H. C. Greene on Des-

modium illinoense. Ipswich, Lafayette County, near Platteville,

Wisconsin, U. S. A., August 16, 1951.

Closely associated with Elsinoe ivisconsinensis and seeming para¬

sitic on it. This has been observed consistently over the years and

several Elsinoe specimens now in the University of Wisconsin

Cryptogamic Herbarium have well-developed fruiting of the Clado-

sporium. Too much emphasis should not be placed on conidiophore

length. The specimen chosen as the type was developed under con¬

ditions of adequate moisture. On the other hand, a specimen col¬

lected at Madison in 1958, developed under severe drouth condi¬

tions, has much shorter conidiophores, and more of them are

branched, but they are the same in their essential characters, and

the conidia of the two specimens do not differ, except that perhaps

a slightly higher per cent are 2-3-septate in the Madison collection.

Measurements of conidia are based on the vast majority, which are

uniseptate, and not on those with more than one spetum, which

tend to be somewhat longer. In the uniseptate conidia the septum is

sometimes not exactly median.

Cercosporella tephrosiae sp. nov.

Maculis nullis; fructificationibus epiphyllis, sparsis, albidis;

conidiophoris hyalinis vel tinctis infirme ; fasciis compactis, ca. 25 j±

diam. ad basibus ; conidiophoris leviter divergentibus, multigenicu-

latis admodum et saepe arte, flexuosis, aseptatis simulate, 50-125 x

3. 5-5. 5 /x ; conidiis hyalinis, cylindraceis, subcylindraceis, vel sub-

fusoideis, basibus conicis vel subconicis, cicatricibus prominentibus,

1-3-septatis, (1 9-) 23-38 (-46) x (3-) 4-5 (-5.5) ^

Spots none ; fruiting epiphyllous, scattered, white ; conidiophores

hyaline or very faintly tinted, closely and compactly fascicled, base

of fascicle about 25 /x in diam. ; conidiophores only slightly diver¬

gent, strongly and often closely multigeniculate, flexuous, appar¬

ently aseptate, 50-125 x 3. 5-5. 5 /x; conidia hyaline, cylindric, sub-

cylindric, or subfusoid, base conic or subconic, scar prominent, 1-3-

septate, (19-) 23-38 (-46) x (3-) 4-5 (-5.5.) /x.

1958J

Greene — Wisconsin Parasitic Fungi. XXV

129

On living leaves of Tephrosia virginiana. Tower Hill State Park,

Iowa County, Wisconsin, U. S. A., August 13, 1958.

This fungus verges on Cercospora, for the closely compacted

conidiophores viewed in mass have a faint brownish tinge. Indi¬

vidually, however, they appear hyaline and the profusely produced

conidia are snow-white in mass, as seen under a hand lens. Cerco-

sporella tephrosiae bears no resemblance to Cercospora tephrosiae

Atk. which has relatively slender, long-obclavate, strongly tinted,

multiseptate conidia, up to 125 ^ or more in length, as well as very

deeply colored phores.

Cercospora helianthicola Chupp & Viegas on Helianthus

grosseserratus. Dane Co., Madison, July 5. Quite inconspicuous. De¬

termined on the basis of Chupp’s key character of slender, acicular,

hyaline conidia.

Myrothecium roridum Tode on Viola cucullata. Dane Co.,

August 1. Bisby notes that this species is sometimes parasitic on

violets, and the current specimen certainly appears so. Also on

Viola eriocarpa. Columbia Co., near Poynette, August 6, 1952.

NOTES ON ROCKY MOUNTAN RUST FUNGI

John W. Baxter

University of Wisconsin — Milwaukee

This paper reports the results of a study of three species of the

Uredinales or rust fungi occurring in the central Rocky Mountain

region. The research was conducted during 1957 and included field

observations and collections, greenhouse inoculations and examina¬

tion of herbarium specimens. This study was supported in part by

a grant from the Wisconsin Alumni Research Foundation. Speci¬

mens from the Purdue University Arthur Herbarium were obtained

through the courtesy of Dr. G. B. Cummins, Department of Botany

and Plant Pathology, Purdue University.

PUCCINIA MENTHAE

Puccinia menthae Pers. is an autoecious, long-cycle rust occur¬

ring on a large number of genera of the Labiatae throughout the

world. Physiologic specialization within this species was demon¬

strated by Cruchet (3), Niederhauser (5) and Baxter and Cum¬

mins (2). Puccinia menthae also shows considerable morphologic

variation, as pointed out by Fischer (4) and Arthur (1). During

the present study, uredial and telial specimens of P. menthae were

collected in Utah and Wyoming for the purpose of studying physi¬

ologic specialization and morphologic variation within the species

in the Rocky Mountain region. Five collections, obtained during

July and August, were later tested in the greenhouse on a series of

differential hosts. The results of the inoculations, based on three

trials, are summarized in Table 1. Four of the collections produced

infection reactions characteristic of previously described races. One

collection, on Monarcla fistulosa L. var. menthae folia Graham,

proved to be a new race.

The infection reactions produced on the differential hosts by col¬

lections 3 and 4 indicate that they represent race 8 as defined by

Baxter and Cummins (2), while collections 1 and 2 used in the

present study probably are identical with the races which Baxter

and Cummins designated 3 and 4. Collection 5 in the present study

appears to represent a new race and brings to sixteen the number

of races of P. menthae known to occur in North America.

Telial material of the five Rocky Mountain collections was exam¬

ined in a study of variation in teliospore morphology, and was corn-

131

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

[Vol. 47

no

0.4

W

«

H

o

immune; I, highly resistant; 2, moderately resistant; 3, moderately susceptible; 4, highly susceptible.

1958]

Baxter — Rocky Mountain Rust F ungi

133

pared with telial material from Europe, eastern North America and

South America. The results of this study indicate the advisability

of establishing a geographic subspecies to accommodate the races

or varieties of P. menthae occurring in western North America on

species of Monardella, Hedeoma and Monarda. Further study of

morphologic variation on a worldwide basis may reveal a need for

subdividing Puccinia menthae into several subspecies or varieties.

PUCCINIA XANTHIFOLIAE AND PUCCINIA HELIANTHI

Puccinia xanthifoliae Ell. & Ev. occurs on marsh elder, Iva xan-

thifolia Nutt., in the central plains states and Rocky Mountain area,

with a known distribution extending from South Dakota to south¬

ern Idaho and southward to Kansas and Arizona. During the sum¬

mer of 1957 specimens of this rust were collected by the writer

near Guernsey, Wyoming and in the vicinity of Greeley, Colorado.

Field observations made at the latter location indicated a possible

relationship between rust infection on Iva xanthifolia and rust

occurring on nearby plants of Helianthus annuus L. Greenhouse in¬

oculations during October and November, 1957 provided a partial

answer to this question. In 2 trials, urediospore material on Iva

xanthifolia, collected near Guernsey, Wyoming, was used to inocu¬

late plants of Helianthus annuus grown from seed in the green¬

house. In both tests abundant infection was obtained. Check plants

remained free of rust. Although the reciprocal inoculation has not

been made, it seems reasonable to conclude that at least one strain

of Puccinia xanthifoliae or Puccinia helianthi Schw. is capable of

infecting both Iva xanthifolia and species of Helianthus.

Further interest in this problem led to a study of urediospore and

teliospore morphology in P. helianthi and P. xanthifoliae. Specimens

examined included material collected by the writer during 1956 and

1957 in Wyoming, Colorado, Nebraska and Indiana, as well as

specimens in the Arthur Herbarium, Purdue University. The study

of P. helianthi yielded the following data : urediospores 18-26 x 22-

28 n, wall 1-1.5 ix, thickened to 2 ^ near the hilum; teliospores 19-

26 x 32-48 ix, wall 1.5-3 fx, thickened to 7-12 /x at the apex. Exami¬

nation of specimens of P. xanthifoliae yielded the following meas¬

urements: urediospores 16-24 x 22-26 / x , wall 1-1.5 ^ , thickened to

2 /x near the hilum; teliospores 18-24 x 31-45 /x, wall 1.5-2. 5 y,

thickened to 7-10 /x at the apex. In both rust species the uredio¬

spores were observed to have an obovoid or ellipsoid shape with the

pores in surface view and a narrower, oblong shape when viewed

with the pores in optical section. In size and shape of teliospores

the two rusts do not dilfer appreciably. This can be readily seen in

the photomicrographs of teliospores of the two species (Figs. 1

and 2) .

134 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

Figure 1. Teliospores of Puccinia xanthif oliae (from Barth. N. Am. Ured.

2976, X 800).

Figure 2. Teliospores of Puccinia helianthi (from Barth. Fungi Colum. 4851,

X 800).

1958] Baxter — Rocky Mountain Rust Fungi 135

Some differences exist between P. helianthi and P. xanthifoliae

with respect to size of urediospores and teliospores and thickness

of the teliospore wall, but these differences are so slight that the

two rusts cannot be readily distinguished one from the other except

on a host basis. In the writer’s opinion P. xanthifoliae should be

treated as a variety of P. helianthi. The results of the inoculations

reported above show that at least one collection of the rust on Iva

xanthifolia is capable of crossing generic lines and infecting Heli-

anthus annuus. However, if it had proved to be capable of infecting

only Iva xanthifolia this would not have been a sufficient basis for

maintaining the Iva rust as a separate species. Such specialization

occurs commonly within rust species and in this case would have

indicated treatment of the Iva rust as a host-specialized variety of

P. helianthi. In conclusion it must be pointed out that final settle¬

ment of the status of P. xanthifoliae must await a critical study of

other rusts of similar morphology occurring on the trible Heli-

anthae, particularly Puccinia verbesinae Schw. and Puccinia cog-

nata Syd. The status of these species and their relationship to

P. helianthi remain to be clarified.

Literature Cited

1. Arthur, J. C. 1934. Manual of the rusts in United States and Canada.

Purdue Research Foundation, Lafayette, Ind. pp. 327-329.

2. Baxter, J. W. and G. B. Cummins. 1953. Physiologic specialization in Puc¬

cinia menthae Pers., and notes on epiphytology. Phytopath. 43:178-180.

3. Cruchet, P. 1906. Contributions a 1’etude biologique de quelques Puccinies

sur Labiees. Centralbl. Bakt. 17:212-224.

4. Fischer, E. 1904. Die Uredineen der Schweiz. K. J. Wyss, Bern.

5. Niederhauser, J. S. 1945. The rust of greenhouse-grown spearmint, and its

control. Cornell Univ. Ag. Exp. Sta. Mem. 263.

.

'

LAND FORMS OF THE BARABOO DISTRICT,

WISCONSIN

Fredrik T. Thwaites

Madison, Wisconsin

Abstract

The following account of the development and classification of

the several different land forms of the Baraboo District, Wisconsin,

is based upon the experience of the writer in taking students on

field trips to that region for nearly 40 years. Most of these trips

were made during April, when observation is better than in summer

because there are no leaves on the trees and brush. The several land

forms are classified according to their age and origin. Where the

interpretations of the writer are in conflict with those of others,

all views are explained and their merits compared. It is concluded

that there are no proved remnants of ancient peneplains formed by

ordinary erosion when the land stood much lower with respect to

sea level than it now does. The upland level, known locally as Happy

Hill, is accounted for by wave erosion when the ancient islands of

quartzite were being submerged by the Paleozoic seas. The name,

Weidman Falls, is proposed for the little known example of a stream

which was let down from the overlying sandstone onto the harder

quartzite beneath in relatively recent time. It is named in honor of

the late Samuel Weidman, who was born a few miles to the north

of this location. The enclosed depression near North Freedom is as

yet not fully explained. A few new facts on the history of glaciation

are included. Many errors in the old topographic maps of the area

are noted, many of them discovered by the aid of air photographs.

Precambrian Land Forms

Precambrian deposition and mountain building. (Fig. 1) One of

back on the quartzite because it is a ground water dam. There is

the major reasons why the Devils Lake Baraboo district has been

visited by so many geology classes is that in it the events of the

geologic past can easily be demonstrated to beginners. For instance,

the ripple marks on the layers of quartzite unquestionably record

deposition of sand under water. The tilted and fractured beds re¬

cord uplift and mountain building. (Irving, 1877) Many facts of

these ancient events remain undeciphered. It is not positively known

how thick the quartzite is or whether there is more than one quartz-

137

R8 C

138 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Lettei's [Vol. 4/

Figure 1. Outline map of Baraboo, showing major geological featuies.

1958]

Thwaites — Baraboo District

139

ite formation. A large part of the facts discovered during the period

of exploration and development of the iron ore resources has been

lost to science. Mining and drilling ceased soon after the First

World War (Weidman, 1904).

Precambrian land forms. There is no record of land forms older

than those of the prolonged erosion of the mountains built from

quartzite and associated sediments. This period of erosion led to

mature, or perhaps even old, land forms, for quartzite is extremely

Figure 2. Weidman Falls from north, showing smooth surface of quartzite and

narrow gorge eroded in quartzite by superimposed stream.

resistant to weathering and erosion. It is insoluble, and although

brittle, is very hard to break. The landscape formed during the

time that the surrounding Precambrian igneous rocks were reduced

to low relief was rather gently sloping with few cliffs, although the

quartzite synclinal remnant rose fully a thousand feet above the

surrounding country. This ancient surface is commonly called the

Precambrian peneplain but no part of it is entirely unaltered by

either marine or subaerial erosion since its formation. Good ex¬

amples of the Precambrian surface of the quartzite can be found

throughout the district and their age is indisputable where there

is more or less cover of later strata. An excellent example is the

smooth upper surface of vertical quartzite layers at the gorge of

Weidmans Falls (Fig. 2). This exposure is evidently part of a hog¬

back on the quartzite because it is a ground water dam. There is

140 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

always water flowing over the falls from a spring held against one

of the sides of this buried ridge. Figure 3 shows the smooth slopes

of quartzite on which there are only rare exposures ; similar topog¬

raphy occurs over large areas of quartzite, for instance in the north

part of Baxter Hollow and in the area north of Pine Hollow

(Fig. 4). It has been suggested (Alden, 1918, p. 170) that the de¬

pression southwest of North Freedom, which Weidman described as

a kettle hole (Weidman, 1904, p. 102), is the result of solution of

the deeply buried Precambrian dolomite which affected the over-

Figure 3. Five different land forms: upland plain, mature slopes on quartzite,

valley of superimposed stream (Skillet Creek), top of delta in Glacial Lake

Baraboo, and endmoraine of Cary glacier.

lying sandstone. The theory requires a very large solution cavity,

for a collapse area normally becomes smaller and smaller upward.

If the iron ore exploration holes gave any clue, their records are

not available and many have been lost (Ekern and Thwaites, 1930) .

Upland plain. The crests of the higher quartzite hills are trun¬

cated by a plain which lies, as far as incomplete measurements in¬

dicate, between 1450 and 1480 feet above sea level. West of Devils

Lake this plain, which is level enough for marginal farms, is known

as Happy Hill. The plain is present in all three hills which border

Devils Lake: West, South, and East bluffs. Fig. 5 shows that it

bevels the tilted layers of quartzite. Farther west this fact is more

marked because the dip of the quartzite is greater (Fig. 6). The

plain is little known in the glaciated part of the district because of

1958]

Thwaites — Baraboo District

141

the cover of drift. In the unglaciated area, it is overlain by clay

which contains much angular quartzite fragments which have been

gathered into stone fences over considerable areas. A few frag¬

ments of Paleozoic chert are also present (Fig. 7). Some geologists

regarded this plain (Martin, 1916, p. 68, 1932, p. 74 and Smith,

1937, pp. 128, 129) as remnants of a once continuous peneplain

formed in Precambrian time and later dissected. The hypothesis

had the advantage of removing the formation of the plain to a very

distant time, but one may well ask just how quartzite could have

ever been reduced to a level surface. It is virtually insoluble and

weathers into a rubble of angular fragments which is not easily

removed by either slope wash or mass movement. The idea of Pre¬

cambrian peneplanation may, therefore, be rejected. It involves

preservation of unaltered remnants on the tops of the bluffs along¬

side 1,000 foot valleys.

Hanging valley problem. At several places along the south side

of the Baraboo quartzite there are mature valleys which hang

above the present surface and the buried rock floor adjacent to the

bluffs. Fig. 4 is a contour map showing one of these as surveyed

by several students. The shape of the valleys above the break in

slope is characteristic of those of Precambrian age and this con¬

clusion is checked by the occurrence of younger sandstone rem¬

nants within the upper parts of these valleys. There may be more

examples not yet discovered, because of the crude contouring of

the old maps. The example given is cut by a narrow gorge known

as Pine Hollow (omitted on Denzer quadrangle) which was later

eroded into the floor of the older broad valley. It contains no

younger sediments. Hypotheses may be advanced that : ( 1 ) the val¬

leys had the lower parts removed by erosion of the Paleozoic sea,

(2) the valleys were eroded to an ancient base level before the sur¬

rounding Precambrian rock was eroded, that is they are relics of

a cycle of erosion within the Precambrian, or (3) they were eroded

during a still stand during either burial or exhuming of the quartz¬

ite. The second hypothesis is not acceptable, for there are no rem¬

nants of Cambrian sandstone within the narrow gorges and there

should be if they are Precambrian. The idea of wave erosion at a

level corresponding to the upper part of the Eau Claire member of

the Dresbach formation of Cambrian age is difficult to understand

because the direction of Cambrian waves and currents as shown by

sediments clearly shows that the south side of the quartzite islands

was sheltered. Shale extends at least as far south as the Wisconsin-

Black Earth valleys. On the other hand there is evidence of wave

action on the southeast side of the quartzite by the presence of con¬

siderable conglomerate, which — near the shore — is interbedded with

shale and siltstone. It is noteworthy that the slope of the quartzite

142 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

/ 4 MILE

IOOO FEET

Figure 4. Contour map of Pine Hollow, showing hanging valley with incised

gorge.

1958]

Thwaites — Baraboo District

143

is steeper below the level of these hanging valleys than it is above.

The north side of the quartzite is so covered with Paleozoic sedi¬

ments that it has not been investigated for similar hanging valleys.

If due to wave erosion of the lower parts, they should be more

abundant on the north side than on the south.

Summary. In summary, the Precambrian erosion forms of the

quartzite where unaltered by glaciation or by later erosion are

smooth and rounded with only a few small outcrop crags and cliffs.

The surface as seen today is strewn with angular fragments of the

bed rock imbedded in clay. This clay did not originate from decay

of the quartzite as apparently was once supposed. (Alden, 1918,

p. 59 ; Geib and others, 1925, p. 11) . Even the contact with the sum¬

mit plain is more or less rounded. Most hills which do not rise to

this level have rounded summits.

Paleozoic

Burial of the quartzite. Submergence after erosion of the Pre¬

cambrian mountains led to deposition of nearly horizontal strata of

sandstone and dolomite of Paleozoic age. That these strata buried

the remnants of the ancient mountains completely is indicated by

the following facts : (1) 25 miles to the south is Blue Mound capped

with a remnant of Silurian strata with a top elevation of 1716 feet

whereas the highest known quartzite is only about 1480 feet; (2)

there are Paleozoic chert fragments on the highest unglaciated part

of the Baraboo quartzite and much of the clay soil (Baraboo silt

loam, Geib and others, 1925) of the unglaciated area is apparently

residual from dolomite not from quartzite; (3) the drainage

arrangement shows little effect of the quartzite topography on

major stream courses; and (4) several small exposures of Paleozoic

conglomerate have been found at the margin of the summit plain.

From this evidence it follows that many stream valleys are the

result of superposition of the drainage from the emerged Paleozoic

strata. There has been much discussion on discrimination of such

valleys from those formed in Precambrian time and filled with sedi¬

ments. A good example of such a valley occurs at the old sandstone

quarry just northeast of Rock Springs (Ableman). The sandstone

at that locality was once extensively used for abutments, retaining

walls, and paving blocks because it is harder than the normal Cam¬

brian sandstone. There must have been ground water alteration in

such situations, for there is also a strong suggestion of the removal

of cementing quartz from parts of the buried quartzite including

boulders of quartzite in the conglomerate.

Superimposed stream valleys. The best key to discrimination of

the valleys of superimposed streams is their youthful appearance

144 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

Figure 5. East Bluff, Devils Lake, from South Bluff showing bevel of strata

by upland plain.

Figure 6. Summit plain on Happy Hill with terrace in quartzite on north.

The terrace strikingly resembles a shore cliff.

1958]

Thwaites — Baraboo District

145

with many cliffs, crags, and rock outcrops, coupled with their almost

complete disregard of the structure of the quartzite. The type local¬

ity for this determination is Weidman Falls as shown in Fig. 2.

Here the gorge below the falls is in sharp contrast with the smooth

transverse profile of the Precambrian hogback seen in the fore¬

ground. The above criterion shows that the gorge of the Baraboo

above Rock Springs is not of Precambrian age, although often

claimed to be such. The same applies to the gorge of Narrows Creek

farther to the southwest, the Devils Lake gap north of the open

valley southwest of the lake which contains Cambrian sandstone,

the Lower Narrows of the Baraboo, the entrance to Baxter Hollow,

as well as several small valleys through quartzite ridges. Among

these may be mentioned the quartzite outcrops at the quarry south

of North Freedom and the cliffs along U. S. 12 at the foot of the

sandstone hill south of the junction with Wisconsin 159. In Pre¬

cambrian time Baxter Hollow drained east to the location of U. S.

12, north along that line and then discharged into the center of the

syncline northwest of the ledges in an area where there are large

sandstone hills. Weidman Falls is a fine example of superposition

in a youthful stage because the stream has only a small drainage

area. The falls are due to the vertical strata of the quartzite in this

locality. In addition to the above criterion of age, both the Lower

Narrows and the north part of Devils Lake gorge are unrelated to

the form of adjacent exhumed quartzite hills. It is in these super¬

imposed post Paleozoic valleys that most of the spectacular expo¬

sures which have been so commonly visited by geology students are

situated. Exposures of the quartzite elsewhere are relatively poor.

Marine erosion of summit plain. The writer has previously

(Thwaites, 1931, p. 745) suggested that the summit plain is the

result of marine erosion during the submergence of the region.

Acceptance of this hypothesis was hampered by the error on the

Denzer quadrangle of 1898 which makes Happy Hill about two

miles wide. Inspection of air photographs shows that the topograph¬

ers were not allowed enough time to discover the deep valleys in the

woods between the roads. They were even unable to cover all the

roads, for there are such obvious errors in some places to prove

that conclusion. The maximum width of the upland is less than

three quarters of a mile. The upland is not exactly level but slopes

gently toward the margins (Fig. 7). In following divides, several

instances were discovered where there is locally a steeper slope so

that it might be that the plain is multiple with distinct levels of

different ages. If so, the elevation data presently available are not

accurate enough to make definite correlations. Proof of the marine

origin of the upland rests upon (1) presence of coarse boulder con¬

glomerate which could have been derived only from strata above

146 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

Figure 7. The level upland of Happy Hill with clay soil containing- both

ciuartzite and chert stones.

Figure 8. Air photograph of Dinosaur Bluff. Spurs to the north were eroded

by migration of a stream down the sloping quartzite. The dark circles identify

section corners.

1958]

Thwaites — Bamboo District

147

the present level. (2) competence of waves to make such a level

surface, and (3) the improbability of any other agent making so

regular a nearly level surface. Elevations ascribed to this plain on

the Denzer and Baraboo quadrangles are extremely inaccurate with

known errors up to 160 feet. The Baraboo quadrangle was surveyed

in 1892 and has been shown to be in error by many later surveys.

The bluffs at Devils Lake are given about 100 feet too high and are

not correctly located or delineated. If the base of the Platteville

formation of Ordovician age is projected northward to the Baraboo

Bluffs, it is found to coincide with the summit plain. This horizon

has been shown to be that of a very extensive marine transgression

where the Platteville rests upon St. Peter sandstone in Wisconsin

to where it lies on the Precambrian in Ontario. Conditions were

favorable to reduce the relatively small islands of quartzite to such

a plain of marine erosion (Thwaites, 1935, pp. 396, 401-402). The

only direct evidence in favor of marine erosion is the presence of

several exposures of conglomerate along the edges of the upland

plain. The boulders of this conglomerate must have come from

strata which lay higher than the present plain and which were

removed by wave action. Criticism based on supposed weak wave

action during deposition of sandstone adjacent to the islands is also

disproved by discovery of initial dips up to 11 degrees near Rock

Springs. Such an inclination indicates quite deep water close to the

ancient shores. (Raasch, 1935; Wanenmacher and others, 1934)

Terrace problem. The hypothesis of marine erosion of parts of

the quartzite during burial is supported by the discovery of a

marked terrace about 200 feet below the summit plain. This terrace

is shown in Fig. 6 which shows the northeast part of Happy Hill.

The terrace is best developed on north-facing spurs although fainter

examples have been discovered on south slopes. Its inner margin is

distinctly steeper than most Precambrian slopes on quartzite. Lo¬

cally it strikingly suggests a shore cliff. The outer slope is gentle

and is in many places covered with a thin plaster of Paleozoic con¬

glomerate. At the far southwest, one of these terraces contains an

outlier of the lower strata of the Prairie du Chien dolomite, the

main body of which formation occurs at about the same level to the

west. In the glaciated area the terraces are difficult to distinguish

and correlation is indefinite. At Rock Springs there is a local ter¬

race making the top of the hogback ridge at elevation about 1100

feet. This terrace is thinly covered with basal Franconia sandstone

conglomerate. Objection (unpublished) was raised because of the

good preservation of this terrace for such a long period of time.

The answer is that it was soon buried under Paleozoic sediment and

has been exhumed only in relatively recent geologic time. The inter-

148 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

pretation of the terrace as a marine feature strengthens the theory

of marine origin of the summit plain.

Post Paleozoic

Erosion forms of Paleozoic sediments. Following the elevation of

the land above the Paleozoic sea erosion started. There is no direct

means of finding the age of this uplift or the age of the youngest

covering strata. Aside from the immediate vicinity of the quartzite

islands, the Paleozoic strata are nearly horizontal. The land forms

developed on them are, for the most part, flat-topped, and the tex¬

ture of the drainage is much finer than in the more resistant quartz¬

ite. Some physiographers have related drainage texture to amount

of infiltration of the rainfall, but this relationship cannot hold here.

It is obvious that the widely spaced drainage of the Precambrian

landscape required larger drainage areas to make valleys. Air pho¬

tography demonstrates that the upland plateaus shown on the Den-

zer quadrangle are much smaller. Many are very narrow divides.

Topography of these younger and softer Paleozoic sediments is

closely related to lithologic differences. The oldest formation ex¬

posed is the Galesville member of the Dresbach formation. This

sandstone is thickbedded and for the most part white ; hence it de¬

velops striking cliffs and steep slopes which are best observed in

the unglaciated part of the district both south of and within the

quartzite bluffs. Overlying this formation is the dolomitic fine¬

grained Franconia sandstone, of which the Mazomanie facies is

here best developed. It forms a bench with local cliffs and crags.

Its green-gray color is in striking contrast to the light colored cliffs

below. Among the scenic features is Natural Bridge near Leland.

(Salisbury and Atwood, 1900, pi. XXVI, p. 69) The arch resulted

from undercutting of one side of a very narrow cliff ed ridge. Weath¬

ering was probably more important than stream erosion in making

the arch. Over the Franconia lies the siltstone, dolomite, and sand¬

stone of the Trempealeau formation. This formation makes cliffs

and part of the upland in the west end of the district, where all the

overlying Prairie du Chien (Oneota or Lower Magnesian) dolomite

has been removed. At the southwest, this dolomite with overlying

residual cherty clay caps broad rolling uplands, which many geol¬

ogists regarded as remnants of a peneplain which also accounted

for the terrace on the north face of the quartzite bluffs. (Trow¬

bridge, 1917, p. 253, 1921, p. 85) The youngest Paleozoic formation

preserved within the district is the St. Peter sandstone. This weak

formation case-hardens and forms some cliffs. It is found in the far

southwest where it makes no distinctive topography and in the

eastern part of the district in Pine Bluff near the Lower Narrows

of the Baraboo River. This bluff may have some of the overlying

1958]

Th waites — Baraboo District

149

Platteville formation beneath the drift cover, for a few feet of this

dolomite is found on Gibralter Bluff south of Wisconsin River.

Dinosaur Bluff. A phenomenon noted (Salisbury and Atwood,

1900, p. 62) long ago is the lateral movement of a valley which

cuts down along the slanting upper surface of the quartzite. This

phenomenon is well developed all along the south border of the

quartzite and reaches its most striking example in what the writer

has termed Dinosaur Bluff, west of Badger. In this case the lateral

stream work cut away all northern spurs (Fig. 8) of a sandstone

hill, leaving the outline of a gigantic dinosaur. This bluff is best

seen from the air, for it is very crudely contoured on the Denzer

quadrangle. Valleys along the contact are all best seen on the air

photographs.

Peneplain theory of summit plain. It has been postulated that the

summit plain of the Baraboo district is a peneplain developed dur¬

ing the erosion of the Paleozoic strata (Trowbridge, 1921, pp. 64-

65). The same objections may be raised against this theory as were

applied to the similar origin in Precambrian time. Besides, the

presence of Paleozoic chert in the residium on Happy Hill and else¬

where is almost positive proof that this plain existed prior to the

deposition of the covering dolomite. If eroded later, all remnants of

the younger strata should have been removed. We can here refer

to the gravel and potholes on East Bluff at Devils Lake where they

occur through a vertical range of 80 feet. In order to make the

potholes, which contain much chert gravel, the water must have

had a considerable velocity and on top of the bluff this could only

have come by fall from higher now-vanished dolomite strata. These

gravels furnish no evidence of the origin of the upland plain, but

are simply an incident of the superposition of drainage on the

quartzite (Thwaites and Twenhofel, 1921, pp. 296, 302-303). The

youngest fossils in the gravel are Silurian. Salisbury (1895)

(Chamberlin, 1874) reported gravel in a dug well north of the bluff

margin but extensive test-pitting (Alden, 1918, pp. 99-102) and

examination of the side of the well failed to confirm this. The orig¬

inal information might have been obtained by asking “leading-

questions.” The gravels have been referred to the Windrow For¬

mation whose age is unknown but may be Cretaceous. The bulk of

the mantle rock on top of East Bluff is clearly residium from dolo¬

mite and not gravel. It has been termed the Baraboo silt loam (Geib

and others, 1925). (See also Andrews, 1958)

Other peneplains. Trowbridge (1921) and other authors (Salis¬

bury and Atwood, 1900, pp. 50-55, 62-69) have postulated that sub¬

equality of summit levels in different parts of the district is evi¬

dence of the occurrence of two or more dissected peneplains formed

SUMMIT PLAIN

150

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

Figure 9. Sections in vicinity of Devils Lake showing the glacial deposits.

1 958 J

Thwaites — Baraboo District

151

during the removal of the Paleozoic cover. None of the evidence

thus far presented, however, is regarded as conclusive by the writer.

Apparently these physiographers thought of peneplains as valley

widening only and hence as growing upstream during the time that

remnants of older erosion surfaces survived nearer the divides.

They did not consider either removal of interstream ridges by re¬

duction in slope or weathering. The terrace in the quartzite is clearly

not related to peneplanation.

Preglacial topography. It was long ago demonstrated (Alden,

1918, pp. 105-107) that the Wisconsin River north of the Baraboo

district must have had a preglacial course east of the present one

as far south as the Lower Narrows of the Baraboo (Fig. 1). From

there the river could only have flowed south of west to the Devils

Lake gap, for there is no other possible course. The cause of this

five mile detour is not evident. It might have been due to the partial

exhumation of the quartzite by the time the river assumed its course

although this idea does not check with the evident superposition of

the north part of the gap. Possibly the cause lies in the initial dip

of the Paleozoic strata. The Wisconsin River turned south just east

of a buried Precambrian valley west of the lake. At the south end

of the lake it discovered a Precambrian valley which contains sand¬

stone. This valley must have discharged east. Although the only

sandstone in this valley is near the eastern extremity, many of the

tributaries (very poorly contoured on the Baraboo quadrangle)

hang above the rock floor. It seems most probable that the river was

diverted by this belt of weak rock, although it later deepened and

widened the Precambrian valley. The ancient course of the Baraboo

River west of Baraboo prior to glaciation is well known from ex¬

ploration drilling for iron ore. The records given probably show

the depth of casing below the surface, for they were not based on

samples so far as known. Owing to the soft character of the pre¬

glacial rock surface it may be that many indicate too great a depth

of fill. The maximum recorded is 260 feet. East and south of Baraboo

the preglacial surface is not known with as much detail. No well

has ever reached the rock bottom of the Devils Lake gap. The deep¬

est appears to be the new supply well not far from the railroad

(Fig. 9), 383 feet in depth with no rock. It is safe to conclude that

the bluff's where Devils Lake is now situated rose fully 900 feet

above the preglacial river. South of the quartzite the river course

must have approximated its present location below Merrimac. The

maximum depth of drift shown by samples is 260 feet in the Badger

Ordnance Works. Very few well records are recorded on the gla¬

ciated part of the quartzite bluffs, but it is known that the drift is

locally quite thick although the average depth may be small.

152 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

Pleistocene

Extra glacial surficial deposits. Pleistocene deposits west of the

terminal moraine shown in Fig. 1 consist of several classes: (1) a

mantle of residual material both from Paleozoic rocks and from

quartzite (Baraboo soil series), (2) non-glacial alluvial deposits,

(3) wind-blown silt (loess), (4) talus, and (5) lake sediments.

Within the glacial boundary we can distinguish (1) terminal mo¬

raine, (2) ground moraine, (3) outwash, and (4) lake deposits.

Residual mantle. A mantle of clay and rubble covers the quartzite

hills and extends down the slopes to end against the adjacent plains.

Locally on U. S. 12 there is a strong suggestion of a dissected allu¬

vial fan of rubble. Some of the surficial material may be loess

although most of it contains many angular stones, chiefly quartzite.

Some of the larger stones may have been mistaken for outcrops of

bed rock. The problem is to determine to what extent this mantle is

the product of mass movement, solifluction, running water, or mud

slides under periglacial conditions. That the conditions of accumu¬

lation of the mantle were different from those of the present is

demonstrated by modern erosion. Such erosion by wet-weather

streams is producing “stone rivers”, concentrations of quartzite

boulders. In the spring of the year one can hear water running

through these removing the finer material (Smith, 1949). Only

locally is there any suggestion of movement of these boulders where

they are higher than the adjacent slopes. Whether or not these

“stone rivers” required a climate different from that of today is

debatable, for snow is often found among the stones quite late in

the spring. In places the parallel ravines in the mantle have left

narrow, comparatively straight ridges which students have mis¬

taken for eskers.

Old terrace gravel. Gradational from the mantle described above

are poorly sorted stream-laid gravel deposits. These may form part

of the fan on U. S. 12 but have been definitely discriminated only

near Plain and on a sandstone plateau on the Galesville sandstone

north of Denzer. The gravels contain quartzite (Alden, 1918, p.

170) pebbles derived from conglomerate and possibly some diorite

from the diorite outcrop north of Denzer. The Denzer locality was

mistaken by Weidman for glacial drift (Weidman, 1904, p. 102).

Such deposits can be interpreted in more than one way: (1) rem¬

nants of valley fill consequent upon glacial outwash of pre-Wisconsin

age in the main valleys, (2) a periglacial phenomenon due to scar¬

city of vegetation on adjacent hills, or (3) an interglacial accumu¬

lation due to aridity with scanty vegetation. It is not possible with

existing knowledge to decide between these hypotheses (Thwaites,

1928).

1958]

Thwaites — Bamboo District

153

Loess. Where stones have not been introduced by overturning

trees, burrowing animals, and soil creep it is easy to distinguish

loess by (1) lack of pebbles, (2) its silty composition, and (3) its

lighter color than that of dolomite residium. We need not here dis¬

cuss the different opinions of the origin and derivation of loess. It

is noteworthy that the loess mantle of the Baraboo district rests

upon older residual clay from dolomite with no bleached A horizon

at its top and no accumulation of chert pebbles. This indicates the

soil profile of a warmer climate than that of the present which

developed the modern soil profile in the loess.

Talus. Coarse talus with little or no fine material occurs mainly

in unglaciated narrow youthful valleys of streams superimposed on

the quartzite. Boulders in this type of talus are large, angular, well

settled, and overgrown by lichens. It is safe to step on almost all of

them without danger of their rolling or sliding. Two distinct opin¬

ions have been expressed about the talus : ( 1 ) Martin (Martin, 1932,

p. 123) held that the formation of the talus is so slow that there

has not been time since glaciation for very much to form. This

agrees with the fact that there is little talus on top of the glacial

lake sediments of the vicinity of Devils Lake. The lake sediments

have sunk into previously formed talus leaving depressions such as

the Alaskan Grotto where cold air emerges from the talus in warm

weather. In a few places the talus has been filled up so that water

descending under the talus forms springs. (2) H. T. U. Smith re¬

garded talus formation as an accompaniment of glaciation due to

frequent freezing when the ice was near. This theory also fits with

the observed slow formation of today and the scarcity of talus in

glaciated valleys. One would think, however, that talus formation

should then have followed the retreating ice margin resulting in

heavy accumulations along the ice margin. Such accumulations are

not present. Both theories, themselves not entirely incompatible,

neglect the normal reduction of rate of talus accumulation as the

cliffs became buried. Preservation of so much unaltered talus is

explicable by the extreme resistance of quartzite to weathering,

although there has undoubtedly been much breaking up of quartzite

beneath the mantle of clay as shown by the large number of angular

fragments in the mantle rock of the unglaciated district.

Pre-Wisconsin glaciation. Although it is now known that all the

evidences presented by Weidman (Weidman, 1904, pp. 99-102) to

demonstrate glaciation of the Baraboo region prior to the ice ad¬

vance which formed the recognized terminal moraine are invalid,

there is distinct indication of such glaciation nearby. In a test hole

at the Baraboo City Waterworks organic material was found in a

clay layer in sand at a depth of 145 feet. This clearly demonstrates

154 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

an interruption of deposition of the valley filling which may indi¬

cate an interglacial interval. In the well at the Waterstreet resort

north of Devils Lake a weathered zone in sand was found at 215

feet. Neither of these occurrences proves that the earlier ice ex¬

tended as far west as the longitude of Devils Lake, for no pre-

Wisconsin till has been recorded. The writer must, therefore,

endorse Weidman’s general conclusion although he rejects his

evidence.

Lake sediments. As has long been realized, the presence of gla¬

cial ice in the east end of the Baraboo bluffs blocked the drainage

and resulted in extensive lake sediments. Salisbury and Atwood de¬

scribe (Salisbury and Atwood, 1897, 1900, pp. 120, 129, 134; Alden,

1918, pp. 222, 226, 245-276) many of these and discriminated sev¬

eral lake basins. The principal basin was the valley of Baraboo

River now known to have been confluent with Glacial Lake Wis¬

consin north of the quartzite bluffs. The second was an expanded

Devils Lake enclosed between the two crossings of the gap by gla¬

cial ice (Fig. 1). Smaller lakes have been discovered (1) northeast

of Devils Lake and (2) southeast of the lake in a tributary valley.

The maximum level to which Devils Lake was raised probably de¬

pended upon leakage along the ice front northwest of the lake and

not upon the divide west of the lake. There is no evidence of any

overflow despite reports of glacial boulders near to this level (Trow¬

bridge, 1917, p. 366; Alden, 1918, p. 246). The highest delta front

is at elevation 1040 or about 80 feet above the lake. Some instruc¬

tors tried to show students the sloping plain at the southeast side

of Devils Lake as an outwash plain. As a matter of fact it is under¬

lain by clay with quartzite and other boulders which overlies delta

sand and gravel (Fig. 9) . It must be an erosional surface not depo¬

sit onal, but just why the clay cover was deposited is not clear. It

seems to be lake clay with ice rafted boulders, but its exact distri¬

bution has not been determined. In the Baraboo Valley the lake

sediments are fairly well exposed. Where seen they are clay, but it

is not unlikely that there is stream-laid sand and gravel below.

Weidman (Weidman, 1904, pp. 100-102) did not accept the lake

origin because there is no marl and peat, deposits which could not

be present in a glacial lake bed. Weidman regarded the ice-rafted

glacial stones as direct glacial deposits. Those he reports are all

below the level of 980 of the maximum lake elevation. The position

of the lake level is determined from isolated shore deposits plus the

level of the delta fronts. One of those mentioned by Salisbury and

Atwood is northeast of North Freedom and consists of a spit of

tabular pebbles from the Trempealeau siltstone with ice-rafted gla¬

cial boulders (Salisbury and Atwood, 1900, p. 130). The pebbles of

this deposit were driven north by waves from their origin in the

1958]

Thwaites — Bamboo District

155

rock spur. Some of the localities they mention were located so in¬

definitely that they could not be found. Others are now concealed by

loess and crept material but were observed when roads were first

graded. An excellent spit of siltstone pebbles, now almost entirely

dug away as a county gravel pit, occurs on Wisconsin 23 just south

of Reedsburg outside the district shown in Fig. 1.

North Freedom kettle hole. The “typical kettle similar to the de¬

pressions and sags in terminal moraine ‘located’ in the coarse drift

on the south slope of a sandstone hill about one-half mile southwest

of North Freedom” (Weidman, 1904, p. 102) is far from typical.

It is rimmed with Franconia sandstone on three sides and on the

fourth by clay. We have already mentioned this depression under

the theory that it could be due to collapse of the deeply buried Pre-

cambrian dolomite with the conclusion that this theory appears to

be an inadequate explanation. Another suggestion is that it was a

narrow ravine or cave in the sandstone blocked at the entrance

either by Pleistocene lake deposits or by landsliding. No drift other

than lake clay could be found either in or near the depression.

Although unsupported by borings, the crevice theory appears the

more plausible.

Glacial erosion forms. The invasion of the eastern part of the

district by glacial ice occurred in the Cary substage of the Wis¬

consin stage of glaciation. We have already demonstrated that

Weidman’s conclusion (Weidman, 1904, p. 102) that an earlier ice

advance extended much farther west is not supported by accept¬

able evidence. The erosive action of the ice so close to the margin

appears to have been slight. It is doubtful that on the quartzite it

did little but smooth and round some of the hills and remove the

talus. In the sandstone area little effect can be seen save at Owls

Head Bluff near Merrimac, which shows a gentle side toward the

direction from which the ice came, compared with cliffs on the other

or west side. Field examination showed, however, that much of the

supposed shaping by ice is due to accumulation of drift and not to

erosion.

Terminal or end moraine. The moraine at the maximum of the

Cary ice invasion was mapped and described by Salisbury and

Atwood many years ago (Salisbury and Atwood, 1897, 1900, pp.

102-111; Alden, 1918, pp. 214-216) and very little can now be

added to their description of the effect of topography on the posi¬

tion of the ice margin. The inaccuracies of the old topographic maps

make their estimates of slope of the margin too high. During the

survey of the glacial geology of the eastern part of the quartzite

bluffs by Alden, it was a source of disappointment that the end

moraines within the glacial margin are so weak and doubtful. Con-

156 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

siderable areas of topography with many small depressions do occur

but their distribution is irregular and not demonstrative of definite

ice margin. The outer moraine was traced by so many students

through such a period of years that its crest was marked over long

stretches by a veritable footpath. It is possible, although not checked

in the field, that some of the lower areas mapped by Alden as ter¬

minal moraine are really pitted outwash. Much of the moraine south

of the quartzite strongly suggests overridden pitted outwash. Some

well logs support this idea. An exposure at the dam of the Wiscon¬

sin Power and Light Company where the outermost moraine crosses

Wisconsin River shows outwash beneath till.

Ground moraine. Much of the area inside the outermost end-

moraine is classified as ground moraine or till deposited when the

ice melted. It shows no characteristic topographic form. Such till

mantles many rock hills, preserving their former topographic form.

In this connection it must be realized that much of the area shown

on most geologic maps as quartzite in fact has a considerable cover

of Paleozoic sediments.

Outwash and deltas. It appears from perusal of older literature

on the Baraboo district that the phenomenon of deltas in the margin

of standing water could not have been understood by all geologists.

Deltas formed at the margin of the ice sheet consist of sand and

gravel layers which dip about 25 degrees into adjacent standing

water. Some till masses slid from the ice. As the delta grew wider,

such events could not occur. The outer margin of the delta plain dis¬

plays a sharp break from subaerial beds (topset) on the plain to

inclined layers (foreset) on the slope of the face. Such a condition

is well displayed north and south of the quartzite range and along

Baraboo River. At Devils Lake the case is not as clear. The mo¬

raines on both sides show from old gravel pits plus sample-

controlled well logs that the layers of sand, gravel, and till dip

toward the lake. These segments of the moraine are certainly deltas.

Outwash could only be deposited above the level of the lake enclosed

in the gorge. Apparently there are no remnants of topset beds. The

only place which has a flat top is the little hill southeast of the old

railroad station which rises 80 feet above the lake to 1040 feet ele¬

vation. This hill is now isolated and the front of the moraine north

of the railroad track is indented by two valleys leading west to the

low plain near the lake. Test pits disclose that this ridge is sand

and gravel. The plain noted above is underlain by sand and gravel

of glacial origin overlain by at least 15 feet of dense unstratified

clay with abundant glacial boulders. This clay extends east up the

flanks of the moraine to a higher elevation than the inferred delta

top. The writer offers the following hypothesis. After the Cary ice

1958]

T h iraites — Baraboo D i strict

157

first advanced deltas were deposited at both ends of the enclosed

lake with a water level of about 1040. How far the topset beds ex¬

tended into the lake is unknown. Following this the ice melted back

from the moraine at the north end of the lake and the glacial lake

drained out to the lake in the Baraboo Valley which lay at elevation

about 980. This erosion initiated the valley followed by the railroad

north of the lake which had a creek which originally drained into

Baraboo River until an artificial dam diverted part of the discharge

through a canal into Devils Lake. Next the ice readvanced and

blocked this valley for a short time. No younger moraine across it

can be discovered. At this time the water level rose higher than be¬

fore and the clay with ice-rafted stones was deposited. This hy¬

pothesis is admittedly without sufficient supporting evidence. It

could be that the second moraine at the north end of the lake was

eroded away when the ice finally left both of the two moraines.

Pre-lake outwash. An interesting light on events in the Devils

Lake gap was the discovery of outwash gravel below the bottomset

silt and clay beds of the delta at the south end as shown in Fig. 9.

This records through drainage in the gorge before the formation of

the delta moraines at both ends. Three distinct water levels may be

distinguished: (1) Devils Lake which is a perched body of water

held in by its own sediments at elevation about 960, (2) a shallow

water table, also perched, in the delta sand and gravel at elevation

about 900, and (3) a deeper and more important water level in the

deep outwash at level about 835. This level is slightly higher than

the land to north and south suggesting recharge by leakage of local

higher ground water. Bretz has described (Bretz, 1950) Glacial

Lake Merrimac, a body of water enclosed in Wisconsin River valley

above the end moraine. He ascribes a body of deltaic bouldery gravel

near the east end of the quartzite bluffs as the product of the initial

discharge when the glacier freed the east end of the bluffs. The lack

of any scoured area on the bluffs suggests that the discharge must

have been very short lived. Thwaites (Thwaites, 1943, p. 127) de¬

scribes a valley eroded in the drift when the waters of Glacial Lake

Wisconsin stood at an elevation of about 835 feet. No sediments

have been discovered which record either the later eastward exten¬

sion of Lake Wisconsin north of the Baraboo bluffs or Lake Mer¬

rimac. Although the writer has seen both deltas and lake clays only

north of the quartzite area, glacial lake waters must have remained

in the east part of the Baraboo valley until drift dams were eroded.

Presence of a kettle hole in the outwash just south of Badger has

long been a puzzle, for such normally indicate that glacial ice was

present in the area not long before its formation. The finding of

the layer of till in a well within the kettle appeared to substantiate

158 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

this theory, but no till could be found at that level in the samples

from a number of wells inside the Badger Ordnance Works. It has

also been suggested that water just outside the moraine was deep

enough prior to deposition of the delta to float out a large iceberg.

The till might have come from its melting. In conclusion it may be

explained that most of the glacial lakes of the Baraboo region are

proved mainly by their level bottoms and sediments, for examples

of shore features are rare.

Drainage outlets. Definite drainage outlets for glacial waters are

not common in the Baraboo region. The best example is near the

south side of Badger Ordnance Works where there is a break in the

moraine which is continued west by a shallow channel in the out-

wash plain. Just north of the quartzite range a low fan on the out-

wash indicates discharge through a depression in the moraine.

Recent

Postglacial erosion. Since the glacial ice melted away, there has

locally been considerable erosion. This has been mainly along the

major streams, the Wisconsin and Baraboo where the slope was

greater than that needed to carry the load from above. The total

depth of erosion along the Wisconsin appears to have been close to

100 feet. The material eroded was largely sand. On the steeper

slopes of the quartzite range and its covering drift many ravines

have been eroded. Most famous of these are the glens : Parfreys,

Durwards, and Fox. The last two are not shown on Fig. 1. All of

these gorges are in part eroded in Paleozoic rock. A ravine south

of the railroad southeast of Devils Lake is about 80 feet deep in till.

South of this the soft sediments of a minor glacial lake are dis¬

sected intricately by gullies.

Postglacial shorelines. Devils Lake appears to have become sta¬

bilized at a level several feet higher than the normal maximum of

today. The cause of the later recession could be either climatic

change or increased leakage to the ground water below.

Postglacial deposition. Devils Lake has received a considerable

thickness of mud (Twenhofel and McKelvey, 1939) which is very

black and seen through the water is mistaken for a “bottomless”

depth. As a matter of fact the normal depth of the lake is only a

little over 40 feet. Alluvial fans, some of them very bouldery, are

common below ravines where the grade of the surface changed

abruptly. The swamps contain considerable depths of peat.

1958]

Thwaites — Baraboo District

159

References Cited

Alden, W. C., 1918. Quaternary geology of southeastern Wisconsin: U. S.

Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 106.

Andrews, G. W., 1958. Windrow formation of Upper Mississippi Valley re¬

gion — a sedimentary and stratigraphic study: Jour. Geology, vol. 66, pp.

597-624.

Bretz, J. H., 1950. Glacial Lake Merrimac: Illinois Acad. Sci., Trans., vol. 43:

pp. 132-136.

Chamberlin, T. C., 1874. On the fluctuation of level of the quartzites of Sauk

and Columbia counties (Wisconsin) : Wisconsin Acad. Sci., Trans., vol. 2:

pp. 133-138.

Ekern, G. L., and Thwaites, F. T., 1930. The Glover Bluff structure, a dis¬

turbed area in the Paleozoics of Wisconsin: Wisconsin Acad. Sci., Trans.,

vol. 25: pp. 89-97.

Irving, R. D., 1877. Geology of central Wisconsin: Geology of Wisconsin, vol.

2: pp. 504-519, 579-597.

Geib, W. J., and others, 1925. Soil Survey of Sauk County, Wisconsin: U. S.

Dept. Agriculture, Bureau, of Chemistry and soils, No. 29, Series 1925:

Wisconsin Geol. and Natural History Survey, Bull. 60C.

Martin, Lawrence, 1932. Physical geography of Wisconsin: Wisconsin Geol.

and Nat. History Survey, Bull. 36: pp. 55-59, 120-125.

Raasch, G. O., 1935. Paleozoic strata of the Baraboo area (Wisconsin), Kan¬

sas Geol. Soc., Ninth Field Conference, Guidebook: pp. 405-414.

Salisbury, R. D., 1895. Preglacial gravels on the quartzite range near Bara¬

boo, Wisconsin: Jour. Geology, vol. 3: pp. 655-667.

Salisbury, R. D., and Atwood, W. W., 1897. Drift phenomena in the vicinity of

Devils Lake and Baraboo, Wisconsin: Jour. Geology, vol. 5: pp. 131-147.

Salisbury, R. D., and Atwood, W. W., 1900. The geography of the region

about Devils Lake and the Dalles of the Wisconsin: Wisconsin Geol. and

Nat. History Survey, Bull. 5.

Smith, G.-H., 1937. Physiography of Baraboo Range of Wisconsin: Pan-

American Geologist, vol. 56: pp. 123-140.

Smith, H. T. U., 1949. Periglacial features in the Driftless Area of southern

Wisconsin: Jour. Geology, vol. 57: pp. 196-215.

Thwaites, F. T., and Tweniiofel, W. H., 1920. Windrow formation: an up¬

land gravel formation of the Driftless and adjacent area of the Upper

Mississippi Valley: Geol. Soc. America, Bull., vol. 32: pp. 293-314.

Thwaites, F. T., 1928. Pre- Wisconsin terraces of the Driftless Area of Wis¬

consin: Geol. Soc. of America, Bull., vol. 39: pp. 621-642.

Thwaites, F. T., 1935. Physiography of the Baraboo District, Wisconsin, Kan¬

sas Geol. Soc., Ninth Field Conference, Guidebook : pp. 395-404.

Thwaites, F. T., 1931. Buried Precambrian of Wisconsin: Geol. Soc. America,

Bull., vol. 42: pp. 719-750.

Thwaites, F. T., 1940. Buried precambrian of Wisconsin. Wis. Acad. Sci.,

Trans., vol. 32: pp. 233-242.

Thwaites, F. T., 1943. Pleistocene of part of northeastern Wisconsin: Geol.

Soc. America, Bull., vol. 54: pp. 127-129.

Trowbridge, A. C., 1917. History of Devils Lake, Wisconsin: Jour. Geology,

vol. 25: pp. 344-372.

Twenhofel, W. H., and McKelvey, V. E., 1939. The sediments of Devils

Lake — of southern Wisconsin: Jour. Sed. Petrology, vol. 3: pp. 105-121.

Wanenmacher, J. M., Twenhofel, W. H., and Raasch, G. O., 1934. The Paleo¬

zoic strata of the Baraboo area, Wisconsin: Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 228: pp. 1-30.

Weidman, Samuel, 1904. The Baraboo iron-bearing district (Wisconsin) : Wis¬

consin Geol. and Nat. History Survey, Bull. 13: pp. 99-102.

TYPES OF PART-TIME FARMING IN

NORTHERN WISCONSIN

Kerlin M. Seitz

University of Wisconsin — Milwaukee

One of the outstanding characteristics of the agriculture of

northern Wisconsin is the large proportion of farmers who combine

non-farm work and farming. Since 1930, when the U. S. Census

began to enumerate the number of farmers who reported “off-

farm” work, approximately one half of the farmers in the seven¬

teen northern counties have indicated such work. The purpose of

this paper is to describe the types of part-time farmers, based on

the kind of non-farm work combined with farming and the areal

distribution of these types. Five types are found : forestry, urban,

mining, recreation and miscellaneous.

Agricultural Areas

These types of part-time farmers are found throughout the agri¬

culturally occupied land of northern Wisconsin1 (Fig. 1). The

spotty, broken and spidery shapes of the agricultural areas reflect

the lack of large areas of good soils and the open network of trans¬

portation. The main railroads go around — not through — northern

Wisconsin.2 There are five north-south railroads for the 250 mile

east-west dimension of the area and two for the 120 mile north-

south distance. The highways are equally few in number and few

are of first class quality. The major highways which have been

built recently connect the larger cities but avoid the older agricul¬

tural settlements. Secondary roads extend only a few miles on

either side of the highways and often become lanes.

The bulk of the better agricultural land in terms of physical prop¬

erties and transportation is in southeastern and southwestern

northern Wisconsin. The irregular north-south band of agricultural

land in the west central part of the area extends along a major

highway and railroad route from Ashland on Lake Superior south¬

ward. There is a sizable area of agricultural land in the northwest

around Superior-Duluth where there are heavier clay soils and good

local markets. Elsewhere, agricultural areas are scattered and

broken.

1 Agriculturally occupied land is land which has at least one farm per square mile.

2 Circular #160, Dept, of Ag., 1931, p. 36.

161

162 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

The blank spaces on the map are areas not used agriculturally by

either part or full-time farmers. Much of it is “wild” i.e., uninhab¬

ited, and in most, agricultural occupance is prohibited by zoning

or governmental ownership (forests) . The parts of four Indian Res¬

ervations in northern Wisconsin are classed as non-agriculturally

occupied and are excluded from consideration.

On Figure 1, the areas are shown in which a particular type of

part-time farming is dominant. This is compiled from information

gained in some seven hundred field interviews. Of these interviews

in northern Wisconsin, 74% are of part-time farmers, 16% full¬

time farmers and 10% non-farmers. From the 1950 Agricultural

Census3 it is estimated that there are 15,134 farms in northern

Wisconsin and that 51%, or 7,688, report “off-farm work”. Thus

interviews with 520 part-time farmers and 112 full-time farmers

represent samplings of better than 4% of all farmers and almost

7% of the part-time farmers. Of the part-time farmers, 60% are

in forestry, 23% urban, 3% recreation, 2% mining, and 12%

miscellaneous.4

The Forestry Type

The forestry type of part-time farming is found throughout

northern Wisconsin and is the type found in the greatest number.

This dominance is strikingly depicted by the map (Fig. 1). From

Burnett County in the west, eastward to the Rhinelander-

Tomahawk urban concentration in east central northern Wisconsin

and northward to Lake Superior, the forestry type of part-time

farming is dominant. The exceptions are the urban type concentra¬

tions near Superior in the northwest and other small cities and a

small recreation type concentration near Spooner. East and south

of the Vilas County recreation area and the Rhinelander-Tomahawk

urban type concentration, the farmer who does woodswork is domi¬

nant, with the exception of small urban type concentrations around

the cities.

Why the dominance in these areas? It is in these areas where

there are few opportunities other than forest work to combine with

farming. Other types of part-time farming become more prevalent

as other non-farm work becomes available. Near cities and large

villages (both incorporated and unincorporated) urban work is

available and in areas where the recreation business is well estab¬

lished or in Iron County around the iron mines of Hurley and Mon¬

treal, non-farm work other than forestry is at hand. In all spots

3 1950 Census of Agriculture , IT. S. Dept, of Commerce, Bureau of the Census,

Washington, D. C.

4 The interviews were obtained in the summer of 1950 & 1951 and since that time

there has been a decrease in the number of farms in the area. The author feels, how¬

ever, that the proportion and distribution of types have not been radically changed.

1958]

Part-time Farming

163

where other types of part-time farming are dominant, a few

forester-farmers are found.

To an observer, northern Wisconsin is a land of forests. A drive

along any of the roads reveals miles of forested land broken only in

spots where clearings have been hacked out of the woods. Not one

county which lies wholly within the area has less than 60% of its

total land area in forest cover. Three, Price in the north central,

Vilas in the north central, and Washburn in the west, have over

Figure 1.

80% in forests.5 The large percentage of land in forest cover is de¬

ceptive because the types of forest and their quality range from

virgin pine and northern hardwoods to brushy aspen regrowth.

The forester-farmer makes use of the large amount and variety

of forests in many ways. He may work on his own land or he may

buy “stumpage”6 on private, county or federal land. Most farmers

prefer one of these because they are their own bosses and can

arrange their hours to suit themselves. However, other farmers

work as woods laborers because they prefer the cash wages to the

risks of self-employment or they do not possess the capital and

experience to set up their own operations.

r> Wm. W. Morris, Classification of Woodland Cover of Wis., Wis. Land Econ. Sur¬

vey, 1930—39, Madison, Wis. and County Ag. Statistics Series, Wis. Crop and livestock

Reporting- Service, State Capitol, 1947, Madison, Wis.

8 Stumpage is the sale of standing trees for conversion into timber products.

164 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

Pulpwood is the chief product of the forest and a single indi¬

vidual can handle its harvest. However, two man teams are more

effective. Popple (aspen) is the most common tree cut although it

does not command the best price per cord. Spruce and balsam pay

better but are not as abundant. It is possible to cut pulp throughout

the year, but the best time is in late fall and winter when the frozen

ground and swamp makes it easier to skid the logs, and the insects

do not torment the woodsman. Since winter is the slack season on

the farm, forest work fits well into the farm schedule. After the

morning chores, the farmer can spend the rest of the day in the

woods and return in time for night milking.

Somewhat similar to pulp cutting but not as profitable is the pro¬

duction of “bolts” for other uses. Bolts do not require trees of as

great size as pulp and, therefore, the smaller trees may be used.

Cheese boxes, excelsior and chemical wood are made from these

bolts.

Saw timber is generally the product of the large timber company.

This is because of the high cost of equipment and the large invest¬

ment required to obtain land with good stands of merchantable

timber. Production of saw timber from public land requires cash

deposits for stumpage which are excessive for the ordinary farmer.

However, a farmer may work for a timber company in winter for

cash wages.

There are two major groups of the forestry type. The first group

is, or has the capacity to be, agriculturally self-sufficient yet does

some woodswork in order to add to farm income. These people have

over forty acres of cultivable land plus pasture and seven or more

milk cows.7 The requirement of seven or more milk cows is not

always met but if they have the cropland and pasture to carry the

required herd they are considered as belonging to this group. Of

the 311 forestry type of part-time farmers interviewed, 187 are

self-sufficient or potentially self-sufficient. Most of these are in the

southeastern and southwestern parts of the study area where agri¬

culture is better established but they are found throughout the

whole area.

Over a third of the farmer-forester type are in the second major

group, the forest-dependent part-time farmer. These farmers have

less than forty acres of cultivated land and fewer than seven milk

cows. Their forestry income represents a third or more of their

total income. Some express their desire to clear enough land to be

able to maintain a self-sustaining agricultural unit but most have

been happy to have a minimum of farm work and to depend for a

large share of their living from forest work. Most of this group of

7 These criteria were determined after consultation with county agents on the

minimum requirement for a self-sustaining dairy farm in the area.

1958]

Part-time Farming

165

the forestry type and the urban type share a common attitude

toward farming, i.e., it is secondary. Their farm activity is directed

toward subsistence. Farmers from this forest-dependent group

have been more apt than the self-sufficient group to hire out for

cash wages, because they can leave their farms more easily.

The farmer who depends upon the forests for a sizable part of

his livelihood and operates his independent forest enterprise usu¬

ally lacks capital and has poor collateral for credit. In order to pur¬

chase stumpage, he borrows from buyers who, in turn, expect the

farmer to sell to them. The arrangement is much like sharecropping

in the South. In addition, in order to obtain cash, the small inde¬

pendent logger sells his logs or bolts as soon as they are cut. This,

added to the small volume and lack of knowledge of markets, pre¬

cludes classification (veneer, lumber and pulpwood) by him to

obtain the maximum value.

The forestry type of part-time farmer, whatever the group, ex¬

ists only because the forests exist. Remove the forests or deny him

the direct use of them by selling stumpage to large operators and

over half of the forestry type could continue as self-sustaining agri¬

culturalists with a smaller annual income. About one third who now

depend on forestry would be forced to enter the labor market as

seasonal laborers or leave the area, as most do not have the interest

nor drive to become full-time farmers. If a change in stumpage

policy permitted persons with capital to harvest the forest in large

units, many in both groups of the forestry type part-time farmers

could become woods laborers. This change would be resented by

most of the part-time farmers, because of a loss of their freedom

to plan and coordinate their agricultural and forestry activities.

If the greater efficiency of handling forest land in large tracts is

shared by increased wages, the change in policy would benefit the

part-time farmer who hires out as a seasonal woodsworker. The

part-time farmer, because of slack winter farm activities, is the

ideal person to meet the seasonal demand for labor in forestry.

Otherwise, migratory labor would have to be brought into the area

and the benefits of the forests would be siphoned out of the area.

The wide distribution of the forests with the many job oppor¬

tunities created by their harvest and the seasonal complementary

work pattern of farming and forestry, make it easy for the farmer

who wants supplemental work to combine forestry and farming.

These present factors plus a history of a land use pattern of a for¬

est and farming combination from the early days of exploitive lum¬

bering to the present, help explain why it is not surprising that the

forestry type of part-time farmer is the most numerous in northern

Wisconsin.

166 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

The Urban Type

Spotted like raisins in a pudding are the urban type of part-time

farmers in northern Wisconsin. The urban type is a poor second

numerically to the forestry type but accounts for 23% of the part-

time farmers interviewed. Near each of the thirteen cities and

larger villages are part-time farmers whose non-farm work is in the

urban center. This phenomenon is common throughout Anglo-

America.8 Between the concentrations within the area there are

noticeable differences in such matters as the relationship of the

size of the concentration to the population of the city or the kind of

work done by part-time farmers. The only characteristic common

to each concentration in the area is small amount of farming car¬

ried on by this type of part-time farmer. Of the one hundred

eighteen interviews, only twenty are of farmers with self sufficient

farm units.9

The urban work of part-time farmers may be classified into two

types : those found in most Anglo-American urban centers, such as

services, trades and non-regional industries; and the regional in¬

dustries of the area. Regional industries are considered to be : pulp

mills, fuzz10 mills, saw mills, iron ore docks and boat works. Most

of those interviewed, seventy five out of one hundred eighteen, were

employed in service jobs, trades or non-regional industries. How¬

ever, with the exception of Duluth-Superior, which is so much big¬

ger than the other centers, those with regional industries have the

larger concentrations of part-time farmers. Thus, some of the

smaller centers which possess large regional industries have larger

groups of part-time farmers of the urban type than do larger cen¬

ters with few, if any, regional industries.

A number of reasons for this can be given: 1) the large forest

product industries offer more employment than the usual urban

industries; 2) the season characteristics of forest-dependent in¬

dustries make employment available at slack periods in the farm

work schedule; 3) the regional industries in the area are located

in the least favorable places for agriculture.

One of the largest concentrations of urban type part-time farm¬

ers is near the largest center of population, Duluth-Superior, which

draws farmers from most of northern Douglas County, the north¬

western county in the area. These twin ports have ore shipping

facilities, a steel plant, a refrigerator manufacturing plant, as well

as numerous wholesalers and service industries. The concentration

extends about thirty miles from Superior, but most of the regular

daily commuters are within a fifteen to twenty mile radius of their

8 Part-time Farming in U. S., U. S. Census, 1935, p. 90.

0 Forty acres plus pasture and seven cows.

10 Cellulose fiber used to make pressed board.

1958]

Part-time Farming

167

work. Few of those interviewed were employed by regional indus¬

tries. Only three out of fourteen have farms that could approach

self-sufficiency, but this low degree of farm activity is characteristic

of the urban type as a whole.

Rhinelander and Tomahawk in east-central northern Wisconsin

are twenty-three miles apart but their functions are similar, and

their concentrations of part-time farmers coalesce into one area.

Despite the vast difference in population between Duluth-Superior

and Tomahawk-Rhinelander, the northwestern concentrations of

urban part-time farmers and the east central one are about equal

in size, numerically and areally. The two east-central cities have

large pulp and paper mills. There are many small cleared areas

with a house and garage along the highways. All of these are not

occupied by part-time farmers but are rural residences of urban

workers. The part-time farmer has more land but usually not much

more of it is cleared than the rural resident’s whose lot is only one

or two acres. In twenty interviews, only six had farms that could

be self-sufficient.

South of Rhinelander-Tomahawk, near the southern edge of

northern Wisconsin, are the cities of Merrill and Antigo. Antigo

lies about thirty miles east of Merrill. Although each is larger than

Rhinelander, neither has as large a concentration of urban part-

time farmers as does Rhinelander. There are no large regional in¬

dustries in either Antigo or Merrill. The agriculture in the areas

around both cities is better than in most places in northern

Wisconsin.

The urban concentrations on the northeastern edge of the area

in Florence and Marinette Counties are dependent on Iron Moun¬

tain (Michigan) and Niagara for urban work. Iron Mountain had

an auto body plant in 1950 that manufactured wooden bodies for

station wagons and convertibles.11 Also, a number of metal fabri¬

cators are there. Niagara has a pulp mill.

Ashland, the only other large city, is somewhat similar to Duluth-

Superior in its function as a port but it has a much smaller hinter¬

land. Iron ore from Hurley is shipped to the lower Great Lakes

from Ashland. Also, pulp wood is received from Canada for ship¬

ment to pulp mills farther south in the state. On the west, Ashland’s

concentration of urban part-time farmers joins that of Washburn

to form a continuous area. At Washburn, a small county seat, pulp

is also imported. But of more importance in work opportunities is

the powder plant located to the south of the city.

The smaller centers shown on the map are mostly county seats or

large villages with forest product industries. Grantsburg in the

11 With the change to all metal types the plant was sold in 1952 and converted to

the manufacture of other wood products by the new owners.

168 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

southwest has a population just under one thousand and no indus¬

tries. East of Grantsburg, Spooner-Shell Lake has more than a local

trade function. This is a resort center with many service establish¬

ments. Shell Lake, in addition to being a county seat, has a boat

factory where small boats are made for local use. Hayward, farther

to the east in Sawyer County is both a county seat and a recreation

center.

Park Falls and Phillips, in central northern Wisconsin west of

Tomahawk-Rhinelander, are examples of small urban centers with

regional industries and a high number of urban part-time farmers.

Park Falls has a pulp and paper mill, while Phillips is a county

seat and agricultural market center with a fuzz mill, planing mill

and flour mill. Most of the part-time farmers in these areas work

in one of the regional industries.

The last two centers, Crandon and Lacona, are east of Tomahawk-

Rhinelander. The larger, Crandon, is the county seat of Price

County and has a small excelsior plant. Crandon’s agricultural area

is small and poor. Since it is located close to Rhinelander, its trade

area is restricted by the larger city. Laona, an unincorporated vil¬

lage, is east of Crandon and half its size. Yet, it has more urban

part-time farmers and a larger concentration around it than

Crandon. The village has a large furniture plant. All examples of

the urban type of part-time farmer found in this concentration are

employed in the furniture plant.

The urban type of part-time farmer is much more dependent on

his non-farm job than most of the forestry type. Few could live off

their land as commercial farmers because they lack enough cleared

land. Nor could they feed themselves as subsistence farmers, be¬

cause they lack farming experience and equipment. With full em¬

ployment in the nation and high demand for forest products, the

urban part-time farmer in northern Wisconsin is well off. A de¬

pression or a curtailment in regional industries would be more

serious for the urban type than other part-time farmers. This type,

together with the group of the forestry type of part-time farmers

that depend mainly on woodswork for their livelihood, would be¬

come relief problems. They do not now use their land to support

themselves even at a subsistence level. The urban type of part-time

farmer, though the most vulnerable to hard times, need not be. He

has land and the knowledge is available. A program to combine

these into a part-time farming system that can stand the shock of

depression needs formulation.

Mining and Recreation Types

The number of mining and recreation types of part-time farmers

in northern Wisconsin is small. Of all the part-time farmers inter¬

viewed, 2% were of the mining type and 3% of the recreation type.

1958]

Pa rt-t im e Fa / min <j

169

The combination of mining ancl farming is today restricted to the

one area of iron mining, Hurley in north-central northern Wiscon¬

sin. In spite of the large recreation business in northern Wisconsin,

the recreation type is few in number because of the difficulty of

combining it with farming.

The dominance of the mining type is local and the division be¬

tween it and the other types is marked. In the north-central area,

no mining farmers were found outside of the Hurley concentration.

In all the other types of part-time farmers, the boundary between

dominant areas is a transition zone. There were four mining type

part-time farmers interviewed outside of the one concentration

around Hurley. They work in a quarry of a roofing granule com¬

pany in Marinette County in the northeast. However, there were

not enough to form a concentration, as there were many more of

the forestry type present in this area.

Some of the farms of the mining type part-time farmers are of

considerable size and include large herds of cattle. Not quite half

of those interviewed in the Hurley area had self-sufficient agricul¬

tural units. The rest use their land merely to help reduce living

costs for shelter and food. Some own as much as forty acres but

have only ten to fifteen cleared. Some keep a cow, others do not.

A few chickens and a garden enable the mining-farmer to provide

some of this food for less cash than buying it at the store.

Most of the farmers in this group receive the largest share of

their income from work in the mines and look upon their farms as

something to fall back on when mining is slack or played out. Tiie

homes, although not pretentious, do not have the hovel appearance

found in the West Virginia and Pennsylvania coal districts, and the

owners are not as bitter about their living conditions. The pros¬

perity of the iron mines has been passed on to the miners in good

wages and steady work.

The importance of maintaining domestic sources of iron ore will

probably keep the mines in operation. The State Planning Board

estimated in 1939 that the life of the reserves of high grade ores

was twenty five years and suggested a study of ways to extend the

reserve by beneficiation of lower grades of the Gogebic Range.12

Little has been done to implement this suggestion but with the ex¬

perience in beneficiation in Minnesota, the low grade reserves in

the Gogebic Range should become more valuable and their exploita¬

tion can be expected. Under present conditions, mining could con¬

tinue until 1964. If the low grade ores are used, it could continue

for a much longer time.

The future of this type of part-time farmer appears better than

the previously discussed types even though many do not have

12 Wisconsin Planning Board, Bui. #7, pp. 63—64.

170 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

enough cleared land to be self-sufficient. However, it is the recog¬

nition by these farmers that their present prosperity is dependent

on the continued operation of the mines which makes them recep¬

tive to improvement of their farming. This recognition and atti¬

tude plus past experience with reduced mining operations indicate

that they would readily adjust to future fluctuations of employment

in mining. This would be done by expanding their farming opera¬

tions even if for some it would mean subsistence agriculture.

Recreation and farming mix about like oil and water. Resorts

need lakes, trees, organized pleasures and transportation facilities.

Most of these are the antithesis of the farmer who doesn’t need the

lake, clears the land for fields and has no experience in the organi¬

zation of commercial recreation. The result has been that outsiders

buy out farmers holding favorably located lake sites or seek sites

in non-farm areas to place resorts. The farmer is left with the

chance to work in the resort as a handyman, guide or caretaker, if

he remains. Yet, even here, because the season of tourists and field

activities coincide, farmers do not seek this employment. Some have

found ways to supply the needs of resorters directly by raising and

selling chickens, eggs, vegetables and berries. A few are in the bait

business. However, the vacationer, because of the irregular supply

and quality of food from local farmers, trades at the urban store

which may buy some things locally, but which is largely tied to the

national marketing organizations.

The rarest combination is the man who actually runs a recrea¬

tion business and farms along with it. Some have land that is ideally

situated to do this. In most cases, they depend upon another mem¬

ber of the family to service the recreation facilities. The only ex¬

ceptions to this are a few winter resorts for skiing and other snow

sports which are found near Cable, fifty miles southeast of Supe¬

rior. However, these resorts are not numerous enough to show as a

dominant area on the map.

The largest area of dominance of the recreation type is the recrea¬

tion region of Vilas County, the northern county of east central

northern Wisconsin. The recreation area extends southward into

Oneida County, but here — because of other and better opportunities

for work, such as in the Rhinelander paper mills — few part-time

farmers are in recreation. In the west, Wisconsin’s second recrea¬

tion region, Hayward, does not show a corresponding concentration

of recreation part-time farmers. Of course, there are some recrea¬

tion type part-time farmers, but it is not the dominant type because

of other work, mostly woodswork, and because the recreation devel¬

opment is less highly organized.

Three small concentrations result from local development of re¬

sorting opportunities. One is west of Hayward. Another is near

] 958]

Pa rt-t hue Fa i m ing

171

Crandon in Forest County but it is much like the Vilas area as most

of the recreation activity is organized by non-farmers. The third

is in Oconto County where farmers have lakes and flowage sites.

This area is still in the process of development and the present own¬

ers want to maintain it and profit from the future expansion. Yet,

if it follows the pattern of other highly developed recreation areas,

the farmers will soon sell out.

The classification of recreation type of part-time farmer includes

only those farmers who are directly concerned with the recreation

business. The indirect influence of recreation is undoubtedly of con¬

sequence. A farmer may sell his products through normal channels,

and these products may supply the recreation industries with

goods ; yet he is not a recreation type part-time farmer. However,

the farmer who sells his farm produce directly to the tourists or

resorts is classified in the recreation type. Similarly, urban service

jobs of a farmer may be supported by the recreation trade, but

such a part-time farmer is not a recreation type. The combination

of farming and recreation work is not easy to make. To do so, the

farmer must either reduce his farm operation, or be favored by an

ideal arrangement of facilities, or have a member of his family who

can run the recreation side of the combination. Most farmers are

not able to make the combination, or prefer not to do so.

The Miscellaneous Type

The miscellaneous type represents about one-eighth of the part-

time farmers interviewed. However, they are scattered throughout

northern Wisconsin and are nowhere dominant. The occupations

found combined with farming are traveling salesmen, craftsmen

who service non-urban sections, milkmen and truck drivers who

serve rural creameries and schools, railroad section hands, meter

readers for rural electric lines, and insurance salesmen. Also, there

are in this type a sizable number of elderly farmers who are too old

to carry on a full-time farm operation. Many of these are partially

supported by pensions or by children, live on small holdings and do

a minimum of farming to help sustain themselves. Some have

returned to old homes or have sought cheap places for retirement.

THE HISTORY OF RYE IN WISCONSIN FROM

1850 TO 1955

Ross L. Packard

Crop Reporting Service, United States Department of

Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

Rye is of relatively minor importance from the standpoint of

Wisconsin’s total agricultural economy. Nevertheless, this crop has

played an important role on many farms in the state, especially on

the sandy soils In the central area. During the early years of settle¬

ment of Wisconsin, rye was grown as a bread grain more generally

throughout the state because many settlers from central Europe

were accustomed to using it in their native counties. A large pro¬

portion of the rye was utilized as a food during that period, while

at present the crop is used largely as a feed grain for livestock or

for pasture and green manure. Only a very small portion of the

Wisconsin rye crop is now used in the manufacture of flour for

bread. Shands (1956) has observed that the demand for rye bread

is declining.

Less than 5,000 acres of rye were grown in Wisconsin in 1850

and most of the acreage was in the south and southeastern counties,

with Washington County providing more than one-half of the state

total. An average of less than 1 percent of the land in farms in

Wisconsin was used for the production of rye during the 20-year

period 1850-70. Rock, Manitowoc, Washington, Marquette, Adams,

Waushara, and Portage were the important rye producing counties

in 1870.

The rye crop had expanded into the west-central district by 1880,

and there were further increases in other parts of the state. The

heaviest acreage concentration, however, was in the central sandy

area. The acreage of rye reached 300,000 by 1893 with nearly every

county of the state reporting some being grown and the concentra¬

tion in the central part of the state had become more pronounced.

The Wisconsin acreages, yields, and production of rye from 1866

to 1955 are shown in Table I.

Moore and Leith (1921) writing in 1921, recommended rye for

sandy soil because: (1) it conserved soil fertility; (2) prevented

soil blowing; (3) was one of the best companion crops; (4) it

afforded a good pasture and soiling crop; and (5 it was valuable

food for people and feed for livestock.

173

174 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

TABLE I

Rye, Acreage, Yield Production

1958]

Packard — Rye in Wisconsin

175

TABLE I — Continued

Courtesy of Wisconsin Crop Reporting Service.

176 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

The first World War created a demand for bread grains and the

rye acreage was expanded to record levels during and immediately

following the war. All areas of the state grew more rye at that

time and the acreage exceeded half a million, with the most concen¬

trated production in the light sandy soils of the central and western

counties. The rye acreage in Wisconsin had reached 529,000 by 1919

and a record of 535,000 acres were harvested in 1922. As the rye

acreage increased during World War I, yields per acre also in¬

creased because much of the new acreage was on better soils than

are found in central Wisconsin, where rye was usually grown be¬

fore the war. The acreage for the state as a whole dropped off quite

sharply after 1922, as the demand for bread grains subsided, but

the decline was less rapid in the central area.

There was a general increase in rye acreage throughout the state

from 1935 to 1938, excepting in the central and eastern districts.

During the next few years the rye acreage declined steadily, reach¬

ing 76,000 by 1946. Shands (1956) stated that part of the reason

for the decline in rye was due to an unfavorable price situation. In

addition, rye is not as suitable for feed as some of the other small

grains. Only 44,000 acres of rye were harvested in 1955. Even with

this low acreage, rye continues to be an important feed crop on

farms in the central sandy plain.

In examining the average yield per acre of rye in Wisconsin for

the years 1866 to 1955, as shown in Table I, an interesting differ¬

ence from other crops can be noted. Rye yields during the last 20

years averaged lower than when the crop was first grown in the

state. This does not necessarily imply that the new varieties of rye

which have been developed were lower yielding; in fact, most were

superior in yields. However, rye can grow and produce a crop on

less productive soils than can some crops. On soils where many

crops would fail or produce very low yields, rye is dependable as a

crop, although yields are lower than if fertility levels are higher.

Thus, the yield provided by rye grown in some of the less produc¬

tive soils of the state can probably be considered a tribute to the

development of superior varieties by plant breeders.

There is likely to be little change in Wisconsin rye acreage in the

future. Rye will probably continue to be used on sandy soils where

little or no fertilization is practiced. At the present time (1956)

Imperial and Adams are the rye varieties being recommended for

Wisconsin farmers. Adams developed by Shands, was released in

1953. Tetra Petkus may find use for silage and with high fertiliza¬

tion it could produce good yields. However, under such conditions

wheat might compete successfully.

1958]

Packard — Rye in Wisconsin

177

Rye Varieties

Information relating to the types and varieties of rye that have

been grown in Wisconsin is more limited than for other small

grains. There are fewer varieties to begin with, because cross pol¬

lination makes it difficult to maintain varietal purity. Data appear¬

ing in Table II show the types and varieties of rye at the State

Exhibitions and Fairs from 1853 to 1913. Prior to 1900 awards

were given just for rye, then for eleven years for spring and winter

rye. Wisconsin Pedigree rye was first listed in 1913. Yields per

acre during that period varied from a low of 11.5 bushels in 1870

to a high of 16.5 bushels in 1902.

TABLE II

Rye Types and Varieties Receiving Premiums at the State

Exhibitions and Fairs, 1853-1913

The earliest testing of rye by the Wisconsin Experiment Station

was in 1900, when Moore (1900) included Prolific in his trials.

Other varieties tested in the years 1900 to 1907 are shown in

Table III.

TABLE III

Rye Varieties Under Test

Wisconsin Experiment Station, 1900-07

178 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

Moore (1902) tested Schlansted and Petkus for the first time in

1901. Both are German varieties secured by the Bureau of Plant

Industry from Europe in 1900 and sent to the Wisconsin Experi¬

ment Station for trial purposes. These were the best European ryes

for breadmaking. Petkus outyielded Schlansted and was also the

hardiest.

Moore and Stone (1907) made the following statement concern¬

ing rye in 1907 :

“For seven years variety tests have been conducted with fall rye and an

attempt made to breed a pedigreed variety that would surpass other

varieties in point of yield and flour production. Two new varieties have

been bred from the Schlansted and Petkus foundation that promise fair

for the future. These varieties will go into the increase plots in 1908.”

TABLE IV

Varieties or Types of Rye Being Produced for Sale by Members of the

Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Association

The first dissemination of pedigree ryes was made in 1910 to the

members of the Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Association

(Moore and Leith 1921). About 200 members tested these varieties

the first year, and 125 conducted tests in 1911. The varieties or

1958]

Packard — Rye in Wisconsin

179

types of rye which were produced for sale by members of the Asso¬

ciation from 1910 to 1942 are listed in Table IV. Rye seed has not

been listed for sale by members of this Association since 1942.

Leighty (1916) reported that Petkus, Schlansted, Ivanoff, and

Dean gave good results in Wisconsin in 1916. Wisconsin farmers

purchased 162 bushels of Rosen Rye seed from Michigan sources

in 1918 and 1919 (Spragg 1921) .

Delwiche developed Pedigree No. 12.19, a selection from Schlan¬

sted, at Ashland and this variety was first listed for sale by mem¬

bers of the Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Association in 1921

(Moore, 1921). Martin and Smith (1923) listed Petkus, Schlan¬

sted, Ivanoff, Dean, and Pedigree No. 12.19 as being grown in Wis¬

consin in 1923. Imperial was developed by Leith (1956). Delwiche,

Albert, and Bohstedt (1940) reported in 1940 that Pedigree

12.19-A, Rosen and Imperial were well adapted to conditions at

Sturgeon Bay, Marshfield, and Ashland. Imperial grew well at Han¬

cock and Madison, but Rosen showed susceptibility to winter in¬

jury. Adams was first released to farmers in Wisconsin in 1953

(Anon. 1953) and it performed satisfactorily in 1954. It is much

like the parent variety, Imperial.

Summary

Farmers were growing less than 5,000 acres of rye in Wisconsin

in 1850. The largest acreage of rye ever grown in Wisconsin was the

535,000 acres recorded in 1922. The rye acreage had expanded as a

result of increased food demands due to the first World War. Shands

stated that the decline since 1922 has been due to the low prices for

rye compared to other grains and to the fact that rye is not as de¬

sirable for feed as some of the other grain crops. Rye is still an

important crop on some of the farms in the central sandy plain. Be¬

cause rye is now grown on less favored situations, yields have aver¬

aged lower in recent years than when the crop was first grown in

the state.

The future of rye in Wisconsin will be largely dependent upon

its utilization on the light sandy soils in the central area.

Varietal improvement and maintenance of pure strains of rye is

difficult because it is a cross pollinated crop. Moore tested one spring

rye variety in 1900 and two winter varieties were tested in 1901.

Pedigree ryes were first disseminated to farmers in 1910. Pedigree

No. 12.19, developed by Delwiche, was released to farmers by 1921.

Imperial was developed by Leith, and has been an important rye

variety in Wisconsin for many years. Adams was first released to

farmers in Wisconsin in 1953 and it performed satisfactorily in

1954.

180 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

Literature Cited

Anon. 1953. Field Crop Varieties in Wisconsin. Wis. Ext. Ser. Cir. 4.63.

Delwiche, E. M., A. R. Albert and G. Bohstedt. 1940. Winter Rye, Growing’

and Feeding. Wis. Ext. Ser. Cir. 301.

Leighty, C. E. 1916. Culture of Rye in the Eastern Half of the United States.

U. S. D. A. Far. Bui. 756.

Leith, B. D. 1956. Personal Communication. Madison. April 18.

Martin, J., and R. W. Smith. 1923. Growing Rye in the Western Half of the

United States. U. S. D. A. Far. Bid. 1358.

Moore, R. A. 1900. Experiments with Grain and Forage Crops. Wis. Agr.

Exp. Stat. 17th Ann. Rpt.: 227-238.

- . 1902. Experiments with Grains and Forage Plants. Wis. Agr. Exp.

Stat. 19th Ann. Rpt.: 217-240.

- and B. D. Leith. 1921. Wisconsin Rye. Wis. Agr. Exp. Stat. Bid. 326.

- and A. L Stone. 1907. Experiments with Grain and Forage Plants,

1907. Wis. Agr. Exp. Stat. 24th Ann. Rpt.: 386-400.

Shands, H. L. 1956. Personal Communication. Madison. April 12.

Spragg, F. A. 1921. Rosen Rye. Mich. Agr. Exp. Stat. Spec. Bui. 105.

ARTS AND LETTERS

THE CASE OF SHAPIRA’S DEAD SEA (DEUTERONOMY)

SCROLLS OF 1883*

Menahem Mansoor

Chairman, Department of Hebrew and Semitic Studies

University of Wisconsin

A. Background.

In 1883, Moses Wilhelm Shapira, a Polish Jew who was converted to Christian¬

ity and settled in Jerusalem as an antique dealer and "agent to the British Museum,"

offered for sale to the Museum fifteen leather fragments containing portions from

Deuteronomy, including the Decalogue.^

The fragments, wrapped in linen, were found by an Arab in caves overlooking

2 3

Moujib, in the vicinity of the Dead Sea. The circumstances of the finding tally

almost exactly with those of the Quraran discoveries. The text was written in archaic

(Phoenician) Hebrew script, similar to but not identical with the script used in the

Mesha stone, ^ and exhibited significant variations from the Masoretic text.'’

*This writer wishes to acknowledge his indebtedness to Miss Mary Ann Fruth,

a graduate student in the Department of Speech and research assistant in the Depart¬

ment of Hebrew and Semitic Studies at the University of Wisconsin, for assisting in

research and preparing the manuscript for publication.

^A great portion of the text appears twice. Two-thirds of the text was in

fairly good condition. H. Guthe. Fragmente einer Leder hands chri ft enthaltend Mose’s

letzte Rede an die Kinder Israel. Leipzig,' 1883, p. 63. For detailed contents see

footnote 183.

p

The Biblical river Arnon, also known as the Wadi Moujib, cuts across Moab

running near the ancient city of Dibon, and empties into the Dead Sea.

^See next section on "External Evidence."

^As we shall see later, in the section discussing the script, almost all the

1883 scholars who actually inspected the original document suggested dates ranging

from the period of the Captivity, the Maccabean period, and even the first two cen¬

turies A.D. (The Standard, August lL, 1883.)

^All the important variations are discussed in the section on "Internal Evi¬

dence."

183

184 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

Ginsburg^, acting for the British Museum, transcribed and translated about

two-thirds of the texts, which were published in the contemporary, leading newspapers

and journals. Hie French scholar, Clermont-Ganneau^, after a brief examination.

branded the Manuscripts as a forgery. Several of the objections produced as external

O

evidence, if acceptable, may equally apply to the Qumran scrolls0, such as the claim

that no fragment can be preserved for over 2000 years in as damp a country as Pales-

9

tine j the fact that the fragments were sewn together, and that the manuscripts were

10

found wrapped in linen .

Shapira was distraught. He committed suicide a few months later in Holland^,

and the whole "incident" was almost forgotten. Unfortunately we are yet unable to

12

trace the manuscripts themselves .

Christian David Ginsburg, I831-19lii. Famed Massoretic scholar who edited

and published editions of many Hebrew MSS. Ginsburg* s familiarity with the Phoeni¬

cian script of the Shapira MSS. stemmed from his work on the Mesha Stone, prior to

his publishing a most elaborate account of that monument written in English. He was

a Jewish convert.

7

Charles Clermont-Ganneau, 181*6-1923. A noted French Orientalist, instrumen¬

tal in discovering the Mesha stone in 1870, and author of a number of volumes dealing

with the archaeological exploration of Palestine. Ganneau was well-known as a critic

of suspected forgeries and frauds and claimed the honor of revealing the frandulant

nature of the Moabite pottery connected with Shapira, as well as the famous "tiara of

Saitapharnes" owned by the Louvre.

8

In the opinion of this writer the authenticity of the Qumran scrolls is

unquesti onable .

9

One of Claude R. Conder's main arguments against the authenticity of the

document was that no leather manuscript could exist for more than 2000 years "... in

the damp atmosphere of a country which has a rainfall of twenty inches." (The Times

Weekly Edition, August 21*, 1883, p. 9)

^Strong objection to the document was raised because of Shapira* s account

about the existence of the linen. "The mention of the linen seems somehow a mistake

since /even/ believers in leather can hardly be expected to assign equal staying power

to mere flax." (The Times Weekly Edition, August 22, 1883, p. 12) For a complete

account of these objections see below.

11

According to information received from the Population Registry in Rotterdam,

Moses Wilhelm Shapira died on March 9, 1881*, at the age of fifty-one. This is the

only document in which the full name of Shapira is given.

12

See section below on "The Whereabouts of Shapira* s Scroll

If

1958]

185

Mansoor — Shapira’s Dead Sea Scrolls

13

Among the recent Qumran finds there are several Pentateuchal fragments, especi¬

ally of Deuteronomy^*, also written in Archaic Hebrew script^, though admittedly of

later date^. In the summer of 1956, the present writer spent several weeks at the

British Museum studying among other things the eighty-two page dossier^ 0n this scroll.

It is clear from this dossier that it was mainly the internal evidence which prompted

Ginsburg, Sayce^, Neubauer^, and other scholars to reach their decision. By no means

1 -s

For full details see P. Benoit, O.P. "Editing the Manuscript Fragments from

Qumran." Biblical Archaeologist XIX, December 1956; or, in its original French ver¬

sion, "Le travail d' edition des fragments manuscrits de Qumran." Revue Blblique LXIII ,

1956, pp. U9-67.

^Frank M. Cross, (BASOR, no. lUl; 1950, p. Ill) referring to the single copy of

the Book of Chronicles found in Cave IV, points out that this manuscript is found on

a three-inch strip of leather; parts of 3ix lines and two columns are preserved. He

also points out that the most popular books among the sectarians, to Judge from the

number of copies preserved in Cave IV, are Deuteronomy— 13 MSS; Isaiah — 12 MSS; and

Psalms — 10 MSS. Some will note that these same books figure most frequently in New

Testament quotations from the Old Testament. The scrolls in Paleo-Hebrew are virtu¬

ally all Biblical, including the five Pentateuchal manuscripts and some fragments from

Job.

15 ,

Several Pentateuchal fragments have been found in IQ, UQ, (for instance Gen. 6,

13-21; Lev. 8, 13), written in Paleo-Hebrew script, again of much later date. "There

is no reason to date ^the paleo-graphical series of MSS. discovered in Qumran7 outside

the normal range of Qumran materials in the square-letter script." P.W. Skenan’s report

in BA XIX, 1956, no. U, p. 86.

16

The inscription on Shapira^ Deuteronomy is similar to but not identical with

that on the Mesha Stone (ninth century B.C.). For the date of the scripts of Shapira's

document see below chapter on script.

^British Museum, Add. U129U. Papers Relating to Shapira 1 s Forged Manuscript

of Deuteronomy. This dossier contains relevant, though- incomplete, papers relative to

mTW. Shapira's allegedly forged MSS. of Deuteronomy, consisting chiefly of some of the

original letters from Shapira to Walter Besant, Secretary of the Palestine Exploration

Fund; to E.A. Bond, Principal Librarian of the British Museum, and to Dr. Christian D.

Ginsburg, who was appointed to report on the Manuscript for the British Museum. The

dossier does not contain the original MSS., but happily there are reproductions in

photograph and lithograph of the text prepared by Ginsburg. Most valuable also are

several contemporary European newspaper clippings on the heated controversy.

18

A.H. Sayce, 18U6-1933. British Orientalist and Professor of Assyriology at

Oxford. One of the foremost contemporary authorities on Oriental scholarship.

19

A. Neubauer, 1832-1907. British Semitic scholar born in Hungary. In 1868 he

became associated with the Bodleian library, where he subsequently became sub-librarian.

He was reader of Rabbinical literature at Oxford from 1886-1900 and published a number

of books, one being a catalogue of the Hebrew MSS. in the Bodleian library.

186 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

did the opinions of all scholars and experts of the day condemn the MSS. as a

forgery20. On August 13, 1956, a preliminary report of this writer's study of

pi

the Shapira case was published in the form of an interview and was subsequently

reproduced in some of the leading newspapers in several countries.

Following the publication of this report, but before this writer was able to

22

publish a documented article on the subject, Oskar K. Rabinowicz and M.S. Goshen-

23

Gottstein strongly criticized the re-opening of the case, each concluding categori¬

cally that the Shapira document was a forgery* 2^. There are good reasons, however, to

20It is regrettable that the scholars who have recently objected to my

re-opening the case did not see fit to refer to any of the reports in favor of the

Shapira documents. (See Gottstein, Rabinowicz; notes 22 and 23 below.)

2~^The New York Times . August 13, 1956, pp. 1, 6.

220skar K. Rabinowicz. "The Shapira Forgery Mystery." Jewish Quarterly

Review XLVII, 1956, pp. 170-182. (Rabinowicz further published two articles on the

subject in the Jewish Chronicle, London, August 9th and 16th, 1957, respectively.)

Rabinowicz mainly repeated the arguments advanced in 1883. He concluded with a

sweeping statement in support of S. Zeitlin's views on the Qumran Scrolls. See

footnote 32.

23"megillot qumran veziyyuf sefer debarim sel sappfra." Ha'ares. December

28, 1956, Tel Aviv. Gottstein, while in essence following Rabinowicz' s 1883 arguments,

raised an important question involving the paleographic issue, to be discussed

later. A similar item was published by him in the Jewish Chronicle of Febraury

15, 1957. Again, he published an article in the Journal of Jewish Studies , "The

Shapira Forgery and the Qumran Scrolls," VII, Nos. 3 and~Tt, 1956, pp. 187-193.

The latter Journal was published only in July 1957.

2^Perhaps it is relevant to point out here that this writer has never made

a claim to the effect that Shapira' s Deuteronomy is not a forgery. It was J. L.

Teicher ("The Genuineness of the Shapira Manuscripts." The Times literary Supplement,

March 22, 1957) who wrote that he had reached the "inescapable conclusion that the

Shapira manuscripts were genuine and that their contents are most fittingly described

as representing the Book of Deuteronomy, which was re-drafted for liturgical and

catechetic purposes in the Jewish Christian Church." Obviously, apart from raising

the question of re-examining the Scroll, the present writer cannot be held responsible

for J. L. Teicher 's conclusion on the genuineness of the Shapira manuscripts.

1958]

Mansoor — Shapira’s Dead Sea Scrolls

187

believe that, for the sake of true scholarship, the whole case merits re-examination.

It was in this spirit that the writer read a paper before the Society of Biblical Li. ter -

ature and Exegesis and another one at the joint Midwest meeting of that Society and

26

the American Oriental Society. At both meetings the members received a sixteen page

mimeographed pamphlet containing documents, quotations, and sources relating to the sub¬

ject under review. It was at these meetings that an attempt was made to refute the

arguments of O.K. Rabinowicz, as well as those advanced in 1883. 3everal eminent schol-

27

ars have since written to this writer encouraging him to pursue the matter further.

J. Philip Ifyatt, President of the Society of Biblical literature and Exegesis, in his

presidential address to the ninety-second meeting, expressed the belief that the Qumran

28

discovery might eventually lead to the authentication of the 3hapira documents.

29

S. leivin , reviewing the finds of Qumran IV, independently called for the re-examination

of the Shapira document in the light of the Qumran discoveries.^

The purpose of the present paper is to attempt to analyze and refute the evidence—

both internal and external— advanced not only by the scholars of 1883 but also by M.H.

Goshen -Gottstein and O.K. Rabinowicz.

^"The Case of Shapira's Dead Sea (Deuteronomy) Scroll of 1883," read at the

ninety-second meeting, held at the Onion Theological Seminary in New fork City, Decem¬

ber 27-28, 1956.

26

"Further Evidence Relating to the Case of Shapira's Deuteronomy," at Dubuque,

Iowa, April, 1957*

27

Out of courtesy and respect to these eminent scholars this writer refrains

fTom referring to their names, which may be obtained on request by any would-be inves¬

tigators of the Shapira case.

28

See also L. Philip Hyatt, "The Dead Sea Discoveries: Retrospect and Chal¬

lenge." JBL LXXVI , 1957, p. 3.

29

Noted Israeli archaeologist and director of the department of Antiquities in

Jerusalem.

30

Ha1 are?. April 20, 1956.

188 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and, Letters [Vol. 47

This writer wishes to reiterate that at no time has he made any claim that the

31

Shapira documents are authentic. He leaves such decisions to more qualified and com¬

petent scholars to re-examine the case and reach a new decision in the light of our

present more advanced knowledge of paleography and Biblical archaeology. Furthermore,

this writer will not in the least feel unhappy or disappointed should competent

scholars today re-examine the case and re-establish the forgery on a sounder scholarly

basis.

The most startling statement in Rabinowicz's article-^ is his intimation

that the Qumran Scrolls might be a forgery too. His conclusion is as follows:

If it should be possible to prove — as is indicated in John Hillaby's

report — that these fragments are textually similar to or in some parts even

identical with certain scrolls discovered since 19b7 at Qumran, then a mystery

of unparalleled importance would be woven around the latter, and thus justify

to a great extent what Professor Zeitlin of Dropsie College Philadelphia has

been claiming about the Dead Sea Scrolls on the basis of internal evidence.

The motive which has prompted Rabinowicz to embark upon a "holy war" against

this writer is quite appreciated in this light.

-^Gottstein, 0£. cit. , p. 187, quoting John Hillaby, correspondent of the New

York Times , attributes the following to me: "My impression is that there is a good

chance of this scroll [viz. The Shapira Scroll] emerging as a genuine one. It is

quite feasible that Shapira might have suffered a great injustice seventy years ago,

and that even if his Deuteronomy did not date from King Josiah's times it might have

been copied by one of the members of this Qumran sect." This quotation by Gottstein

is correct as far as it goes; however, this quotation originally belongs to Theodor

F. Meysels, of Jerusalem. (See Jerusalem Post, November 20, 1953.) It was only

natural for this writer to entertain the possibility of the Shapira document emerging

as a genuine one, but certainly not the "only possibility," as Gottstein infers.

-^JQR, op. cit. , p. 182.

1958]

Mansoor — Shapira's Dead Sea Scrolls

189

The External Evidence.

B. The Discovery.

The following is an account of the discovery and descriptions of fragments, as

33

related in Shapira's own handwritten letter to Professor Herman Struck, of Berlin , and

3U

in Shapira's own handwritten account to the British Museum.

I am going to surprise you with a notice and a short description of a curi¬

ous manuscript, written in old Hebrew, or Phoenician letters upon a small strip

of embalmed leather, and seems to be a short unorthodox book of the last speech

of Moses in the plain of Moab....

In July 18?8, I met several Bedouins in the house of the well-known Sheikh

Mahmud el Arakat, we came of course to speak of old inscriptions. 35 one Bedouin

asserted that the antique brings blessedness to the place where it lays, and

began to tell... the following....

^ ^ The original letter in its entirety is found in the above-mentioned British

Museum Dossier, fol. 1, and is dated "Jerusalem, May 9, 1883." The writer has made very

few changes in grammar and style.

3U

"A Few Notes as a Preface to the Manuscript of Deuteronomy." British Museum

Dossier, pp. 26-32.

^It was only natural for Shapira to discuss inscriptions, seeing that he was an

"agent for the British Museum." It is relevant to say here in passing that Shapira in

this capacity had sold a large number of ancient authentic rabbinic and Arabic documents

which are still in the possession of the Museum. Guthe, the well-known German scholar

irtic was the first to carry out intensive study of the Shapira documents states in his

book (op. cit., p. 1) that he had visited Shapira's antique shop several times "to look

at several Hebrew and Arabic MSS., especially concerning the Bible, which Shapira had

bought in Yemen and which he had sold in the meantime partly to the Royal Library in

Berlin and partly to the library of the British Museum in London." A number of manu¬

scripts were at that time purchased by Mayor Adolf Sutro of San Francisco, according to

a letter recently received by this writer from the librarian of the San Francisco public

library. On Shapira's arrival in London, several reports appeared in the contemporary

press stressing that he was a distinguished member of the Hebrew- Christian community.

The Jewish Chronicle of London, August 10, 1883, p. 10, reported that in Jerusalem Sha-

pira had become a pillar of the London Mission and that as a leading antique dealer in

Jerusalem he used to acquire great numbers of old MSS. from Arabs in South Palestine

and sold them all over Europe. Some of these documents were of great importance such

as the beautiful MSS. of Maimonides' Commentary on the Mishna which he sold to Berlin.

As O.K. Rabinowicz himself points out, (op. dt., JQR, p. 173) this made possible the

editing of the whole work of the philosopher! Tn fact, the announcement about the

edition of the Mishna Torah on the basis of Shapira's MSS., giving him full credit for

it, was made in April 188U — eight months after his fragments had been declared a for¬

gery and one month after his suicide in Rotterdam, (ibid., p. 17U) Ginsburg, in a let¬

ter published in the London Times, August 27, 1883, and ad.iressed to E.A. Bond, prin¬

cipal librarian of the British Huseum, dated August 22, 1883, reporting on the forgery,

pointed out that in November, 1877, the British Museum purchased ftom Shapira a large

number of ancient Pentateuchal scrolls from Yemen.

190 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and ’ Letters [Vol. 47

Several years ago, some Arabs had occasion to flee from their enemies and

hid themselves-^® high up (in caves) in a rock facing the Moujib.3i They dis¬

covered there several bundles of very old rugs. Thinking they may contain gold,

they peeled away a good deal of cotton or linen and found some black charms and

threw them away; but one of them took them up and since having the charms in his

tent, he became a wealthy man, having sheep, etc....™

Only the goat and the jars are missing here to show the striking similarity with

the circumstances of the Qumran original discovery of Cave One.

Shapira's account goes on:

We marvelled of the dryness of the place. The Arabs told us that no rain

are able to approach the place because the north and south rocks sheltered it

from rain. We thought at that time that such a dry land may preserve for us

the oldest documents, being like the Egyptian soil. ” I therefore took an inter¬

est in the story.... with the help of Sheikh Arakat, an Arab brought me ^"i.e.,

Shapira/ slowly all I now possess, which seemed to me to belong to three differ¬

ent documents — one nearly complete, one a very little wanting, and of one I have

only a very little piece and ouch decayed.

Some scholars doubted the truthfulness of Shapira's account as fantastic and the

fruit of his imagination. Yet today, in the light of the Qumran account of the discov¬

ery of Cave One, Shapira's story does not sound so incredible.

According to Guthe's^ description of the manuscript, there were sixteen strips

of leather whose breadth varied between 7.6 and 9.7 centimetres. Their lengths, however,

were of greater variations. Five strips were only fifteen to eighteen centimetres longj

the others consisted of two, three, four, or five connected layers, each of which had

the length mentioned above so that strips up to eighty or ninety centimetres in length

were found. In addition there were several smaller pieces.

36

"...in order to escape the persecution of the Turkish government." B.M. Dos¬

sier, p. 26.

37

According to Shapira's account to Guthe, Bedouins of the East Jordanian tribes 1

were forced by the Wall of Damascus to recognize Turkish rule which they hated. So they

escaped to a cave, supposed to be between Aroer and Wadi-l-Moujib. There they found a

black bundle next to a pile of old linen, (op. cit., p. 5)

O Q

These three excerpts are from the Dossier, p.l.

39

Fro* a letter from Shapira, Dossier, p. 2.

p. 2.

1958]

Mansoor — Shapira’s Dead Sea Scrolls

191

C. The Role of the German Scholars.

In a memorandum addressed to Ginsburg

the Manuscripts in 1878, he had made copies^

I

tmann. Shapira went on to say:

^ Shapira stated that upon receipt of

and had sent them to Kons tan tine Schlot-

Schlottmann wrote that they were fabrications and blamed me for calling

them a sacred text... and wrote in similar terms to the (German) consul at

Jerusalem, Baron von Muenchausen, and desired him to prevent me from making

the find public.

Shapira placed the fragments in a Jerusalem bank upon receiving Schlottmann' s

opinion. However, he soon began to consider the German's case more critically. He

stated:

I began to reconsider Schlottmann' s objections and found that they were

partly grounded on mistakes I had made in deciphering the writing. I felt

better able to judge them myself because I had had more experience in manu¬

scripts. It was before Easter of the present year that I re-examined them,

and deciphered them a second time. Professor Schroeder, Consul in Beyrout,

3aw them in the middle of May, 1883, and pronounced them genuine .db He wanted

to purchase them. I took the writings to Leipzig at the end of July to have

them photographed. Professors there saw them. Professor Guthe, who intends

Dated August 7, 1883, and reprinted in the Athenaeum and Academy, both of

August 11, 1883, pp. 179 and 99, respectively. It is also reproduced by Rabinowicz

in the JQR, op. cit., p. 17U.

This may account for the observation made by his daughter (pseudonym Myriam

Harry) in her book. La Petite Fille de Jerusalem, Paris, 19lU: "Son p^re copiait ces

lettres vingt fois, cent fois....cker chant cie nouvelles combinaisonsj et, chaque fois

qu'il £tablissait un mot ou compl£tait une phrase, il exprimait sa joie." p. 31 •

Gottstein in the space of one page, JJS, op. cit., p. 189, makes several contradictory

observations: (a) "It cannot be maintained with certainty that Shapira was involved

in the forgery himself." (b) "That he /Shapira^ was versed in the art of skillfully

writing Paleo-Hebrew letters is beyond doubt." (c) "It is possible that his desire

to prove his learning .. .drove him to being involved in the forgery, which by the way,

could not be accomplished by one person." Again, Gottstein (ibid.) describes Shapira's

daughter as a person who "idealized her father"; in the same breath, Gottstein uses

the French quotation to prove that Shapira was training himself for the forgery. The

general view expressed by most of the contemporary writers was that Shapira himself

was not the forger.

theologian and Professor of Old Testament at Halle.

)|)|

According to Shapira's account to Guthe, Dr. Schroeder, the German consul

in Jerusalem, inspected the leather strips in May 1883, and had no doubt concerning

their genuineness. Guthe adds, "It is undoubtedly certain that Schroeder had seen

the manuscripts in Jerusalem and is inclined to consider them genuine. (o£. cit., p. 7)

192 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

to write about them, believes in them. The manuscripts have been smeared

with asphalt originally as a kind of embalment. They became subsequently

further darkened by the use of oil and spirit. The oil was used by the Arabs

to counteract their brittleness, and to prevent their suffering from wet. 5

According to Rabinowicz,^ Guthe finished his investigation on July 6^*

four days later Shapira appeared in Berlin and offered the fragments for sale to the

Royal Library. One would expect that Guthe would have warned the Royal library and

later the British Museum about the forgery but nothing was heard from him. Moreover,

Richard Lepsius, keeper of the Royal Library, decided to accept the offer. The Times

correspondent in Berlin reported to his paper40 that Lepsius

...at once convened a Committee of the most learned of his colleagues to

examine into their /the fragments^ nature and value. This committee consis¬

ted of Professor (August) Dillmann, of the Hebrew Chair; Professor (Eduard)

Sachau, the distinguished Orientalist; Professor (Adolf) Ermann, smother

scholar (prominent Orientalist); and Dr. (Moritz) Steinschneider, who in the

years between 1852 and i860 compiled the valuable catalogue of Hebrew books,

etc. in the Bodleian Library at Oxford. ...The Committee met at the house

of its convener, Professor Lepsius, on the 10th July last; while Mr. Shapira,

of Jerusalem, was waiting in expectant trepidation in an adjoining room,

spent exactly one hour and a half in a close and critical investigation into

the character of the goatskin wares. At the end of the sitting they unani¬

mously pronounced the alleged codex to be a clever and impudent forgery.

There was some thought of calling in a chemist to look at the matter from his

particular point of view; but so satisfied were the Committee with the gen¬

eral internal evidence against the presumption of the antiquity of more than

^Memorandum from Shapira to Ginsburg, op. cit.

U6

JQR, ojo • cit., p. 178.

The result of Hermann Guthe' s work appeared in Leipzig in September 1883,

under the title Fra^mente einer Leder hands chrift enthaltend Moses letzte Rede an die

Kinder Israel. Rabinowicz, in ' JQR, p. 175, gives an incorrect description of ffuthe ' s

work when he writes: "This boolcTet contains almost 100 pages — U for the Introduc¬

tion and 9U for the text — reproduces the entire wording of the Shapira fragments in

one column — There are also some facsimiles of the MSS. at the end of the book...."

A more accurate description will read as follows: "This booklet contains 9U pages—

2 for the Introduction, UO for the text, and 52 pages are devoted to description and

discussion of the MSS. and the texts. There are no facsimiles at all of the MSS. and

the book has only one page containing a table of the forms of the Phoenician alphabet.

Moreover, the text in Guthe' s book does not cover all the Shapira fragments.

On August 28, 1883. It is worthy to note that although the correspondent

reported on events which took place on July 10th, his dispatch was published in the

Times only after Clermont-Ganneau' s conclusion against the authenticity of the docu¬

ment. The Times in the meantime published Ginsburg 's transcriptions and translations

of almost two-ihirds of the text.

1958]

Mansoor — Shapira’s Dead Sea Scrolls

193

2000 years claimed) for the strips, that they deemed it unnecessary to call

for further proof.

Rabinowicz claims that the German scholars knew that the scroll was a hoax.

If so, why did they not warn their British colleagues? Surely they knew what was

going on in the British Museum. In the strong words of the Athanaeum:^ ’’If the

professors detected the forgery why should they have offered to buy the fragments?

And while they read in German and English newspapers the sensational news from Lon¬

don, why did they keep quiet? Not a word of warning to the British Museuml" The

article also doubted that Dr. Lepsius, "with the limited opportunity he had of exam¬

ining them, came to a decided opinion about them." Nonetheless, the German savant 3

did not share their knowledge with the English scholars. One naive excuse advanced

was that these learned gentlemen were on vacation.52 yihy did all the German schol¬

ars— some of whom wanted, nevertheless, to purchase the document-^ — wait until Cler-

mont-Ganneau had made his decision and only then join the band-wagon?

k^It is interesting to note that the London Editors of the Times pointed out

that, not withstanding their verdicts, the Berlin scholars were willing to acquire

those fragments at a price Shapira could not accept. Rabinowicz in JQR (see note 22)

remarks, "This made him ^Shapira^ think that the MSS. might after all have been genu¬

ine, for why should scholars be willing to purchase forgeries?" and that he therefore

brought them to London to try his luck with the British Museum.

^Professor Albert Socin of Tuebingen also confirmed, but a year later, (in

Zeitschrift des deutschen Palaestina-Vereins, Leipzig, 188U, pp. 2UO-2U1,) that a

whole committee of important scholars in Berlin recognized the forgery immediately,

long before it created such a stir in England.

'’^September 1, 1883, p. 275 •

52

A. Neubauer, The Athenaeum, September 8, 1883.

53

The Times, which had reported the Shapira controversy in a thorough and

objective manner, often consulting experts on the subject, apparently instructed its

correspondent in Berlin to look into the authenticity of the offer by the Berlin

scholars to buy the fragments from Shapira. This was confirmed in the Times of Aug¬

ust 28, 1883. The ingenious reason given for the purchase was to enable the German

professors to study and exhibit to their students "an example of what could really be

done in the way of literary fabrication." (ibid.) Rabinowicz, in JQR, XLVII, 1956,

p. 178, conveniently confuses the events chronologically without giving sources or

documentations and naively concludes triumphantly, "One of the most striking facts

(Continued next page, please.)

194 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

D. Shapira's Offer of the MSS, for One Million Pounds Sterling Not Rejected.

Shapira offered his Deuteronomy scroll for sale to the British Museum authori¬

ties asking one million pounds for it. The fact is that the offer was not turned down

even after several days of examination of the document, not only by Ginsburg but also

by a group of experts who met at the office of the Palestine Exploration Fund for the

sole purpose of inspecting the scroll. Moreover, a number of fragments were put on

display, and on August 13, Mr. Gladstone, the British Prime Minister, paid a special

visit to look at them. One of the London newspapers'^ reporting the Prime Minister's

visit to the British Museum remarked that he was seen "chatting" with both Shapira

and Ginsburg and that he had expressed an astonishment at the close similarity of the

Manuscripts to the Moabite and the Siloam stones. The paper went on to say:

Hie battle which is now waxing hot among Orientalists will be the renewal

of the old war of the Moabite stone. The question is partly one of paleo¬

graphy. Obsolete words and words regarded as late Hebrew appear. Among

those who hold that the Manuscript is genuine, the divergency of opinion as

to the date is very great. Some 8th century, some the time of captivity,

while a third party places it to be the Maccabean period.

Had the British Museum scholars been convinced that Shapira's documents were

a forgery, they would have neither displayed them to the public nor troubled the

Prime Minister to come and inspect them.

^ ( cont) with regard to the finality of the finding that the fragments were a

forgery is that the scholars in Germany and England arrived at their conclusions inde¬

pendently." Just that, German scholars who knew about the forgery several weeks before

their British colleagues kept silent about it.

^■n ^-s autobiography. Sir Walter Besant, one of the persons present at this

, comments that the MS. was examined "amid such excitement a3 is very seldom

exhibited by scholars." Besant also mentions that one of the learned gentlemen, a

professor of Hebrew "...exclaimed with conviction, 'This is one of the few things

which couldn't be a forgery and a fraud.'" Sir Walter Besant. The Autobiography of

Sir halter Besant. New York: Dodd, Mead, and Co., 1902, pp. 16TTT627 — V ~

55

The London Standard, August U|, 1883.

1958]

Mansoor — Shapira’s Dead Sea Scrolls

195

E. Ginsburg 1 a Reluctance to Reach a Decision,

For almost three weeks Ginsburg, the expert on behalf of the British Museum,

had been publishing transcriptions and translations from Shapira's Deuteronomy.-^

Almost three-fourths of the entire text with translation was published in the London

Times during the period. Had he thought the whole thing was a forgery, what was

the purpose of publishing the texts? It took Clermont-Ganneau only a few moments

(sicl) to reach his sensational conclusion that the document was a forgery.

Two weeks after the arrival of the Manuscript in the British Museum we reads

Dr. Ginsburg is still busily engaged at the British Museum in decipher¬

ing Mr. Shapira's latest antiquarian find; and the re+icence Dr. Ginsburg

displays leads many to put faith in the original assertion that these scraps

of leather are hundreds of years older than the Christian era. It is argued

by these believers that, if the skins had been forgeries, such an acute

scholar as Dr. Ginsburg would have been able long before this to have detected

the fraud

^ Ginsburg' s translations appeared in the London Times of August 10, 17, and

22; and in the Athenaeum for August 11, 18, and 2$. Many other newspapers copied the

translations for ihe enlightenment of their own readers.

57

Report to the Liverpool Daily Post, August 16, 1883, from its correspondent

in London*

196 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

F. The coup de grace*

The coup de grace in the external evidence was dealt primarily by Clermont-

Ganneau'^ and was repeated in Ginsburg's first report-^ to Bond: "The narrow slips

of leather on which ^Shapira's text7 is written are cut off from the margin of Syna¬

gogue scrolls."

Clermont-Ganneau, in his devastating conclusion, admitted that he had enter¬

tained in advance most serious doubts as to the authenticity of the documents.

His decision was reached only after a glance at two^1 or three fragments, grudgingly

permitted by Ginsburg, and only for a few minutes. Clermont-Gainneau added that

he could easily forge another scroll which "would make a fitting sequel to the Deu¬

teronomy of Mr. Shapira," adding sarcastically that his "would have the slight advan¬

tage over it of not costing quite a million sterling." Clermont-Ganneau' s supercili-

^The Times, August 21, 1883.

^Dated August 22, 1883, and published in the Times August 27, 1883.

60

Upon his arrival in London, Clermont-Ganneau, in his letter to the Times,

published on August 1$, writes: "I will not conceal the fact that I entertained in

advance serious doubts as to their authenticity."

61 .

The painstaking scholar Guthe (op. cit., p. 2) tells us that when Shapira

came to see him in Leipzig in June 1883 wxth a view to examining the document, he

(Guthe) told him that no conscientious scholar could reach a conclusion until he had

"acquired a perfect knowledge of the entire manuscript... and this is a labour which

would take weeks or even months." It took Clermont-Ganneau only a "few moments,"

Neubauer— less than a week (even without seeing the document), and Ginsburg about

twenty days, to brand the document as a forgery.

ars.

62

All accounts indicate that there was no love lost between these two schol-

Clermont-Ganneau writes, "I set to work with the meagre means of informa¬

tion at my disposal: (1) The hasty inspection of two or three pieces which M.

Ginsburg had allowed me to handle for a few minutes on my first visitj (2) the exam¬

ination of two fragments exposed to public view in a glass case in the manuscript

department of the British Museum, a case very ill-lighted and difficult of approach,

owing to the crowd of the curious pressing round these venerable relics." (Times,

August 21, 1883.)

Mansoor — Shapira’s Dead Sea Scrolls

197

1958]

6U

ou3 attitude was met with hostility by some of the British press, and apparently

the Daily News was not prepared to accept Clermont-Ganneau’s conclusion at face

value. The newspaper sent its own unnamed expert to examine and report on the

65

scholar’s conclusion. His verdict reported in the Daily News stated:

...the portion of the Deuteronomy manuscript examined by the present

writer was written on leather of a thicker character, differing very con¬

siderably from that usually employed in synagogue-rolls. Moreover, it is

questionable whether on a purely speculative business it would have been

worth while to mutilate and spoil a valuable roll. M. Clermont-Ganneau’s

evidence is also vitiated by the strong prejudice which he confesses he

had previously entertained.

^Nearly every London newspaper took the chance to attack the French scholar,

often with no attempt at subtlety. The Echo (August 23, 1883) commented that "...the

flippant offer of a French archaeologist to provide us with an entire Pentateuch of

similar apparent antiquity is about equal in value to Dr. Lardner's promise that he

would swallow the first steamship that succeeded in traversing the Atlantic." The

Manchester Guardian (September 6, 1883) remarked that Ganneau had "shown the hand of

the critic a little too soon for British notions of fair play." When a controversy

arose regarding the original discoverer of the forgery the press leaped to the de¬

fense of Ginsburg and accused Clermont-Ganneau of bad faith and falsification. The

Daily News (August 27, 1883) commented caustically on the Frenchmen "whose special

function it is to discredit Mr. Shapira's antiquities...." By the end of October,

however, Ganneau was being pitied, and the Nation (October 25, 1883) reassuringly

published its view that the persecution of 6anneau resulted from a failure on the

part of Ginsburg and that "English newspapers. . .endeavored to disentangle /Ginsburg

by accusing the Frenchman of acting from a preconceived notion and anti -Biblical

prejudices, of haste in forming his decision and greater haste in making it known,

of making use in his discovery of the fraud previous hints by Dr. Ginsburg, etc...."

^August 22, 1883.

198 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

G. The Whereabouts of Shapira' s Document,

In an article to the Jewish Chronicle on the subject,^ the present writer

67

remarked, "The scroll may be lying in some repository of the British Museum which,

68

however, denies possession; may have been thrown out long ago, or may have been

returned to the Shapira family."

In this connection it was stated^ that in July, 188U, Shapira' s widow wrote

70

to the Museum inquiring about the documents of her late husband. The present

writer also remarked that there was no indication in the dossier of a reply having

been sent or of the fate of the documents,

71 72

Both Gottstein and Rabinowicz have attempted to exploit this remark.

73

Gottstein, with baffling over-confidence and sarcasm claims, "Mansoor seems to

have overlooked some pertinent facts when he states that a reply was sent to Shapira'

^M. Mansoor, "Shapira's Dead Sea Scroll." December 28, 1956, p. 13.

67

This claim was first advanced by Theodor Meysels in the Jerusalem Post,

November 20, 1953.

This writer wishes to put on record that the British Museum authorities

have done everything possible to extend the facilities of the Museum to him, inclu¬

ding the making of several photographs and a microfilm of the entire dossier. He

has never doubted the statement by the British Museum that they believed the Shapira

document was returned. This writer only stated that he could find no written record

in the dossier to this effect.

69

M. Mansoor, loc. cit.

70

The relevant evidence is in folio 25 of the British Museum dossier (Add.

U129U) dated July 7, 188U: "Dear Dr. Ginsburg: Mrs. Shapira in a letter just re¬

ceived asks to have sent to her a letter of recommendation of her late husband from

Lepsius and a similar one written by myself which she states are in your hands....

She inquires after the Deuteronomy fragments and says she found two small pieces

among her husband's papers and sent them to Professor Schlottmann./ Signed E.A. Bond

71 , .

JC, 0£. cit., pp. lh-15.

72

JC, August 16, o£. cit.

73

"We can answer with absolute certainty," "beyond any doubt," "there is no

doubt whatsoever," "every scholar can rest assured and sleep soundly at night," "it

is an obvious fake," to quote only a few (JC, op. cit.) Gottstein's article a few

months later in the JJS (op. cit.) is moderate in tone. (See also note 80 below.)

1958]

Mansoor — Shapira' s Dead Sea Scrolls

199

widow. In fact, we find a note to the effect that she afterwards submitted the mater¬

ial to the German scholar, Schlottmann, for further study. In view of the docu-

ment quoted above, Gottstein's statement is clearly misleading, all the more so

since he does not refer to the sources. All the letter states is that "two small

76

fragments" were sent to Schlottmann. Surely Mr. Bond, the Curator of the British

Museum, would not have written such a letter to Ginsburg had the MSS. been returned

by that time. In view of the one million pound sterling demanded by Shapira, this

fact could not have escaped his mind. Furthermore, the "further study" by Schlott¬

mann, mentioned in Gottstein's statement above is pure conjecture. There is nothing

to support it. Building up his conjecture, Gottstein, referring to Schlottmann,

77

remarks that he "had already played a doubtful part in inducing the Berlin Museum

to buy /through Shapira^ the well-known 'Moabite pottery fakes, ' and Shapira had got

in touch with him before he came to England." Gottstein's implication is clear:

Schlottmann was perhaps the first scholar, as early as 1878, (i.e. five years before

Shapira came to London) to denounce the document as "obvious forgeries, because they

contradicted the Bible." Shapira himself, in a memorandum addressed to Ginsburg'7

writes, "Schlottmann wrote that they were fabrications and blamed me for calling

them a sacred text."

7liJC, loc. cit.

^British Museum Dossier, fol. 25, Add. U129U.

76 ,

Shapira brought only fifteen strips to the British Museum. (Times, August

3, 1883; Athenaeum, August U, 1883.) According to Guthe (see note UO) Shapira had

at least sixteen strips. This explains the fact that Mrs. Shapira found two frag-

. ments among her husband's papers after he had committed suicide. Gottstein's argu¬

ments in the JC (op. cit.) and in the JJS (op. cit., p. 191 n. 19) are far from

convincing, wHereas Rabinowicz's statement on this subject (JC, August 16, 1957) is

irrelevant in the light of Guthe 's evidence. (For the entire contents of the strips,

see note 183.)

77

JC, loc. cit.

7®Letter from Shapira to Dr. Strack, May 9, 1883 . British Museum Dossier,

fol. 2.

^August 1883. Published in the Academy, August 11, I883, pp. 99-100; The

Athenaeum, August 11, 1883, p. 179*

200 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

Having built up his conjecture, Gottstein concludes "with absolute certainty"

that "there is no doubt whatsoever that in 188U the British Museum returned the

Scroll."®0 Here too Gottstein’ s conclusion is fully endorsed by Rabinowicz .8l

Let the following facts speak for themselves: (a) Mr. Bond’s letter (dated

Oa

July 188U) to Ginsburg inquiring about the documents. ^ (b) Shapira left London in

ignominy in September 1883 obviously without the MSS. In Clermont-Ganneau' s book®-^

O)

we read that a re-examination of the documents by a number of scholars, including

Clermont-Ganneau himself, took place at the British Museum in January, 188U. (c) Finj

ly, the most relevant evidence in this connection is the following excerpt from A.R.C

Carter's book:®'*

After the exposure he (Shapira) wrote a piteous letter of regret for the

trouble and unrest which he had caused, and he thankfully accepted a few

pounds from the British Museum for his once "pri celess" manuscript to be

kept as a warning to others. With this small sum he went to Amsterdam and

died T5y His own hand in an obscure inn.

This last evidence certainly supports the evidence given in (a) and (b) above.

®°It is perhaps relevant to state that despite his initial overconfidence

Gottstein had not a word to say about the whereabouts of the MSS. in his subsequent

JJS article (o£. cit.) .

81 JC, August 16, 1957.

82

See above, note 53.

83

Les Fraudes archaeologiques en Palestine,

Paris, 1885, pp. 25U ff.

Obviously Clermont-Ganneau by re-examining the documents at the British

Museum in 188U indicated that he was not certain that his condemnation of the docu¬

ments was "indisputable" as he had thought six months earlier.

85

A.R.C. Carter, Let Me Tell You. London: Hutchinson and Co. Ltd., 19U0.

A whole chapter, pp. 216-19, is" devoted to the Shapira case. Mr. Carter, who is

happily still with us, was born in 186U, so he was about twenty years old when the

Shapira "indident" took place. Since I89U he has been editor of the Year's Art and

a regular contributor to the Daily Telegraph on art and literature. *

®^In a private communication from Dr. Cecil Roth, of Oxford (dated June, 195?'

it is stated that fragments from Shapira 's Deuteronony were exhibited in London by th<

Quaritch firm. It is referred to as "Item 2091 in the Catalogue of the Anglo-Jewish

Historical Exhibition, Royal Albert Hall, London, 188." Further inquiries in this

direction have failed to produce further results as to the whereabouts of the documeni

1958]

Mansoor — Shapira’s Dead Sea Scrolls

201

H. Character of the Script*

A significant feature of the investigation was the fact that no objection or

suspicion about the script itself was voiced against the document by the scholars of

1883; especially by those who had examined the original strips. On the contrary it

seems that both Ginsburg and Guthe were favourably impressed by it. Ginsburg himself

stated:^

The writing of the Shapira MSS. seems not to be a picked alphabet, but

current, and this is in favour of the genuineness of the document. It is

pretty clear that, whatever the age of the leather, the writing must either

date from somewhere about bOO H.C. or from A.jD. lboO.

OQ

The Standard0 said:

Among those who hold that the MSS. are genuine. . .some incline... to the

period of Captivity, while a third party places the documents as late as the

Maccabees.

This view was given support in the Saturday Review which was able to report^

that "the latest estimate is that they are of the Maccabean period."

Gottstein1 s Inaccurate Argument on Paleography.

90

Gottstein' s main contention is that the forger "imitated Paleo-Hebrew monu¬

mental letters, i.e. letters used on inscriptions (or coins). Neither he nor any

scholar in the 1880' s could know — and this decisive fact seems to have escaped Man-

soor's notice — that a written Paleo-Hebrew document exhibits altogether different

characteristics ."

Perhaps Gottstein should be referred here to a statement on the subject by

91

an authority. W.F. Albright's classical work contains an important statement which

clearly refutes Gottstein's. The statement reads, "Palestine itself has yielded a

^Athenaeum, August U, 1883 .

®®August lU, 1883.

^ August 18, 1883.

^JJS, o£. cit., p. 189.

^The Archaeology of Palestine. Penguin edition, p. 221.

202 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

number of Aramaic ostraces from Samaria, Tell Far f ah, and elsewhere, written in

exactly the script and language of Jewish papyri and ostraces of the fifth century

B.C. which have been found in Egypt."

While the above observation speaks for itself, archaeological finds also

contradict Gottstein's statement.

Yohanan Aharoni, who headed the 1955 expedition to Massada, conducted under

the auspices of the Hebrew University, the Israel Department of Antiquities, and

the Israel Exploration Society, reported* * 9^ among other things that "two Hebrew in¬

scriptions were found.. .inscribed in black ink on a potsherd and on a fragment of

papyrus .. .written in the square script found on the Dead Sea Scrolls."

91

Elsewhere in the Jewish Chroni cle-^ Gottstein categorically declares that the

manuscript is "an obvious fake" on paleographical data. Here again Gottstein should

9I1

be reminded of W.F. Albright's general observation that "The paleographic criteria

are insufficient to establish their dating beyond doubt."

It should be borne in mind that the character of the script in Shapira's

document is not exactly that of the Mesha or Siloam inscriptions, as is generally

assumed. After spending several months studying the text* Guthe pointed out9'’ that

at least seven Hebrew letters 3,**, ,12 , p are different from

those in the Mesha inscription while four others ( 13 , 3 , S,n ) display

a minor deviation. Moreover, Guthe found at least three letters ( 3 , 73 , 3 )

of.

with a "consistent difference" from the Siloam inscription.7

9^As reported in Israel Digest, April 20, 1956.

93o £. rit., April 19, 1957, p. 15.

9^op. cit., p. 221.

93 op. cit., p. 65.

96ibid.

1958]

203

Mansoor — Shapiro’s Dead Sea Scrolls

97

It is also significant that Guthe remarks that "the symbols collected from

Hebrew seals and coins yield the most numerous and closest similarities. The forms

for the Hebrew letters K, 2,1, *7, 9 are found most faithfully on

Hebrew coins, whereas the letters *1 , T , V ,1 offer the best parallel with

98

those on old Hebrew seals." Another revealing observation by Guthe is that Sha-

pira's script contains three letters 0 , 3 , p in entirely new form. Hence,

99

Guthe (who nevertheless condemned the document as a forgery on internal evidence)

observes, "the writing therefore does not lack certain features which become especi¬

ally appealing only after prolonged occupation with the manuscript."

Perhaps it is appropriate to finish this section on the character of the

script with Guthe' s own conclusion;

In spite of the differences mentioned, .. .the impression of uniformity

predominates so much that I am now able to write the same symbols with an

oriental reed pen on leather without effort [ZrJ hesitation.... In this exper¬

iment I was surprised to observe that the sharp corners and the pointed

angles of the letters can be produced without any difficulty on a piece of

leather which has been smoothed for writing. Ihis characteristic is apt to

arouse a prejudice in favor of the manuscript.

100

As I have reported in my "Ausgrabungen bei Jerusalem" I am in posses¬

sion of several reproductions of really forged or still to be forged in¬

scriptions which inhabitants of Jerusalem showed me. Their letters however

were with few exceptions so faulty and strange that a rewriting from memory

would have been impossible. With those common forgeries this manuscript

has doubtless nothing to do. Compared to those the manuscript makes a so-

to-speak distinguished impression.

101

A full facsimile of the alphabet is given in Guthe' s work.

97

98

oj^. cit., p. 66.

99.

ibid.

)

ibid., p. 62.

100 The separate edition, Leipzig, 1883.

101

op. cit., p. 9U.

p. 17U

204 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters [Vol

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1958J

Mansoor — Shapira’s Dead Sea Scrolls

205

I. The Internal Evidence.

It is most significant that both Neubauer and Ginsburg became convinced that

the manuscripts were a forgery, not on the basis of external evidence but mainly on

102 103

internal evidence. Again, Rabinowicz states, "But it was on internal evidence

that Professor Guthe came to the conclusion that the fragments were a forgery." He

further points out"^ that the Rev. Albert Lowy^ was "one of the first in England

to repudiate the genuineness" of the document and that "it was the voice of Professor

Neubauer and his extensive analysis in the Academy^ that sounded the death knell

for the Shapira fragments." This statement, therefore, constitutes the argument par

excellence of Rabinowicz.

1 09

Rabinowicz, JQR, op. clt., p. 173s "Certainly, these external findings

were important, but it was on the internal evidence that the Shapira fragments were

finally proclaimed a forgery without any shred of doubt." See also Ginsburg' s enum¬

eration of his conclusions based on internal evidence, in his report to Bond of the

British Museum, dated August 21, 1883. Again, in the Academy, September 8, 1883,

pp. 161-62, we read that Guthe* s condemnation of the forgery is based upon internal

evidence.

103

JQR, 0£. cit. , p. 176.

^Slabinowicz, JQR, op. cit. , p. 179 •

103

The entire statement relating to Rev. A. Lowy, to whom Rabinowicz refers,

is found in The Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archaeology, November, 1883 •

Vol. VI, Fourteenth Session. (Published at~the Offices of the Society, Bloomsbury,

W.C., 188U, p. 5.) The report given in the proceedings is typical of the unscholar ly

treatment of the subject. For the sake of reference it is reproduced here in full:

"The Rev. A. Lowy, at the request of the President, made some remarks on the well-

known forgeries called the Shapira MS. He stated that in the month of August, when

he saw the reproduction in the Athenaeum of some portions of the alleged ancient

text, he had no hesitation in mentioning before a large audience that a most daring

fraud had been committed by some unscrupulous speculators. The forger had elimi¬

nated from the text nearly all the vavs and ,yods which serve as matres lectionis,

in order to bring his work in harmony with the ancient Phoenician inscriptions.

But he had forgotten to be consistent. For example, Sihon was written with a yod

after the samech. The interpolations were suggested by the Samaritan system or

garbling the text of the Pentateuch. The innovations introduced by the forger were

ridiculous." As an example Mr. Lowy observed that it could be noticed that the for¬

ger, in his search after the sensational, had parodied some of the verses in Deuter¬

onomy, ch. xxvii, where curses are pronounced upon the commission of such and such

a sin. The forger had introduced new benedictions by the insertion of phrases in

which it is said, "Blessed is he who shall not /commit such and such a sin/". The

interpolations were in many instances specimens of bad Hebrew and bad logic, and in

all instances specimens of bad faith. It is significant to note that the Rev. Lowy

"definitely proved" that the Mesha Stone was also a forgeryl (A. Lowy, "The Apocry¬

phal Character of the Moabite Stone." Scottish Review IX, April 1887, pp. 215-2U3.

10^ August 18, 1883, p. 116. Neubauer' s views were also published in the

Academy, August 23 and September 8, 1883*

206 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

The absurdity of the whole argument is that Neubauer's articles are far from

extensive and are written for the layman. The articles are undocumented. Rabino-

107

wicz in his articles has simply reproduced the arguments, incorrectly in some

instances

This writer has been conducting research for over a year on all the available

109

material published in the contemporary newspapers and periodicals. An attempt

will be made to quote, where possible, not only the arguments advanced by Ginsburg,

Neubauer, and Guthe against the authenticity of the document, but also those

recently advanced by Gottstein and Rabinowicz, and to analyze them in the light of our i

knowledge today. The writer leaves it to the reader to reach his own unbiased conclusit

107

op. cit., p. 17h. See also, Jewish Chronicle, August 9, 16, 1957.

^■°®For such errors, see notes 110, 111, 121, 12h, 128, 129, 131, 132, lU2,

and lU8.

109

'Over 70 books, articles, and reports relating to the Shapira document

have been consulted. A copy of the relevant bibliography is available on request.

1958]

Mansoo7 * — Shapira’s Dead Sea Scrolls

207

J. Main Arguments Advanced Against the Document.

(1) "...we are struck by the verb “jmnn , *1 liberate thee.' The usual

verbs employed for liberating from Egypt and from the house of bondage in the his¬

torical as well as in the prophetical books of the Bible are either KX’ in the

Hiphil form (as the received text has it here) or rnB . The roots “l“in or Tin

are not used as verbs in the Old Testament, but only in the Targum and in the Talmud,

and then not in the Hiphil form^^ or with the particle

While the statement is correct, the argument is not valid. We find deriva¬

tives of these roots: D’Ul hSrfm "free born, nobles" at least ten times in the

113

io Old Testament. Moreover the root is used in Aramaic in Aphel: ill ’Tinx

"I shall liberate her."^^* 1

Neubauer's argument is rather dubious. Can one say that the Siloam inscrip¬

tion of the seventh century B.C. is a fake because the word mp3 "hole" (from the

Biblical root lp3 ) is not found as a noun in the Old Testament? Again, the word

D’ODn "bowels," "inward part," "midst," is found at least four times in the Qumran

writing but not in any other Hebrew text. Can we reasonably condemn the Qumran

writings because ODD or its derivative is not found in the Old Testament or else-

116

where in Hebrew literature?

^■^Erroneously, Fabinowicz writes that the root is THFl which is impossible

here. See JC, 0£. cit., August 16, 1957.

^Rabinowicz, loc. cit., following Neubauer

used in Aramaic in ApheT Torm. This i3 incorrect.

Targum Y. to Gen. 16:2 (See M. Jastrow's Dictionary

, asserts that this verb is not

It is found at least once in

s .1.) .

XT2

Neubauer, loc. cit. (see note 106 above.)

113

I Kings 21:8,11; Isa. 3ii:12; Eccl. 10:17; twice in Jer. and seven times

in Neh. (see S. Mandelkern's Concordance s.l.).

argum Y. to Gen. l6:3« The verb was quite common in

rash, and Talmud. “Also found as Hebrew inscription in coins

"second year to the liberation of Israel." Cf. S. Zeitlin, The Dead Sea Scrolls and

Modern Scholarship. , p. U5.

^IQS iv. 20; IQH xxxix. 28; xli. U; and Qumran Cave I 36.1U.2.

ll6For a comprehensive discussion of the word branded a scribal error by sev¬

eral scholars see M. Mansoor, "Studies in Hodayot-IV" JBL, lxxvi; 2, 1957» PP • 1^7- »

and Y. Yadin. JBL (1955)* PP« UO-U3*

208 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

117

(2) "In the Second Commandment the document reads ’ll 317*1 for D3./R*l ."

Neubauer rightly argues that the form is ungrammatical. That an expression in a

text is ungrammatical, cannot be brought as evidence against the authenticity of the

document. We all are aware of the numerous ungrammatical expreesions in the Old

Testament and the Qumran texts.

(3) It is further argued by Neubauer that "the root does not mean 'to

rest' but 'to cease from work,' and in this sense only it is found in the Old Testa¬

ment.^® He adds that the verb nil should have been used. This is a pointless

argument. The text used in the document reads: ]3 W ’?3UTI D1 ’3 ’1)317*1

“jnftn3*l nnK 01 fl3wT) The verb Tl3S? in this sense is used regularly in the

Exod. 23:12;3Uj21 and several other instances. Neubauer concludes that the "for-

120

ger made a blunder in not leaving the root 0*11 as in the received text."

(U) Shapira's document is also condemned by Neubauer because "the word

ought to be repeated according to Classical Hebrew: Exod. 17*31 /an<^ 32 and else¬

where." This is a surprising statement on the part of Neubauer, whose argument is

121

repeated and supported by Rabinowicz who, in turn, did not check the validity of

such a statement. He asserts that the text should have read “10003 01*1 HOiK 01

and hence the charge that Shapira's Hebrew is "unclassical" and "ungramatical."

While it is correct to say that the repetition of El is required in accordance with

Biblical usage, its absence surely cannot constitute a proof against the relevant

117

Neubauer, loc. cit.

^^See also Gen. 2:2; Exod. 16:30; Lev. 26:3h,35.

^^Neubauer, loc. cit.

1 21

"The Shapira Scroll," Jewish Chronicle, August 16, 1957, p. 13. "In

classical Hebrew one would expect a repetition of 01 in this commandment instead of

■jnorm hdk 01 .»

1958]

Mansoor — Shapir&’s Dead Sea Scrolls

209

text. A mere glance in the Concordance would have sufficed. There are numerous

122

passages in the Old Testament where D3. is not repeated, e.g. Exod. 3U:3

“lpnm ]Kxn oi Est. U:i6 »jm?3i 53tf ai and Ecci. 8:i6 n*pn 03 ’a .

121

Sow, Neubauer argues, "Here a clumsy use has been made of the Chaldean paraphrase.” J

This writer sincerely fails to see his point. In the words of Rabinowicz, Neubauer's

proponent, in the JQR^S "...the word TO 3 in the Fourth is used in a way utterly

unparalleled in Biblical usage." As is the case in all the short Commandments, the

compiler of Shapira's text paraphrased this Commandment too. This writer does not

accept Neubauer's verdict as to the "utterly unparalleled in Biblical usage." We

The latter is certainly in accordance with Biblical usage and can be favourably com¬

pared with Shapira's text. The use of the preposition £1 in Samuel should not

raise any insurmountable difficulty, for the irregularities in the use of preposi¬

tions in the Old Testament is not uncommon. The same can be said in respect to the

Qumran texts.

125

let, Rabinowicz in his JC articles surprisingly declares, "It was this

phrase which convinced a group of scholars in Berlin at first glance that they had

■^See also Deut. 28:6lj II Kings 17:Ul, et. al.

^^Neubauer, loc. cit.

1 4op. cit., p. 179* and in the Jewish Chronicle, op. cit. Here too, Rabino¬

wicz has not* checked his sources when he reproduced the text in the JC, Had he

checked the facsimile in the British Museum dossier, he would have observed that

the Decalogue is published in the Journal of Jewish Studies, VEL, 1936, p. 187, where

this writer's statement may be readily verified. )

op. cit., p. 13.

210 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

been presented with a forgery." Tb authenticate his statement, Rabinowicz relies on

a passage published in the Athenaeum126 by Neubauer: "If I remember rightly, there

occurred a passage in there, 'Thou shalt not kill the person of thy brother,' which

Professor Dillman and I considered quite sufficient for the recognition of a forgery

Thus, these two eminent scholars condemned the Shapira document as a forgery on this

basis. Is this true scholarship?

(6) Neubauer also objects to Shapira's paraphrase of the Fifth Commandment ,

127

"Thou shalt not commit adultery with the wife of thy neighbour." He contends

that the forger merely copied Lev. 20:10 DL’R DR *]R3 5 “17R t7’R

being the same text used by the scribe of Shapira's Deuteronomy.

(7) Shapira's Sixth Commandment reads: “JJH 3 3 ID K* 1? . Neubauer

maintains that " is not found in the Pentateuch, the word V’n being employed

there instead of it in the sense of 'wealth'." Rabinowicz adds his blessing to this

1 9ft

statement by writing in the JQR that " ]n (sicl) is equally unbiblical" and

refers to Gen. 3U:38 and Deut. 8:17. This writer leaves it to the judgement of the

readers as to the validity of this point. ]*1H is commonly used in the Bible as

"wealth". In this sense it appears three times in Psalms, four times in Ezekiel,

once in Song of Songs ( ID’D ]*in ), and sixteen times in Proverbs. Can Rabino¬

wicz justify his comment that 11 H is unbiblical? let, this is one of the argu¬

ments advanced in 1883 in condemnation of Shapira's text.

(8) Shapira's Seventh Commandment contains the expression *Tp0’7 ’ fai7 RCI

"to him who taketh Jfy name falsely." Neubauer points out that here the expression

RE/lb’ is rabbinical; in Classical Hebrew we would expect RC5 “K7R C’R1? .

^^September 8, 1883, p. 306.

Neubauer, loc. clt.

1 9ft

op. cit. , p. 179. By mistake, again, Rabinowicz substitutes for^n •

Mansoor — Shapira’s Dead Sea Scrolls

211

1958]

a The usage of itt/'l1? is certainly Classical Hebrew. In the Decalogue alone we have

129

several such forms, not to mention the very numerous illustrations in the Old

Testament.

]< (9) The document's Ninth Commandment contains the expression

i "false testimony" for 15? "false witness" in Deut. 5:20. The variant reading

-\?J for XVJ should cause no difficulty, for the parallel version of the Decalogue

in Exodus 20:l6 also uses “IpC/. , as in Shapira's, and not as the Deuteronomic

'version. Moreover, seventeen M53. read “Iptf in the Deuteronomic version, and

not XVv? .13°

131

Neubauer's main contention, however, is that my is rabbinic. This

is questionable. First DVTy "testimony" is more appropriate here than *7y

("Thou shalt not bear false testimony [rather than 'witness'] against thy neighbour."

132

The word fiVTy "testimony" is found in this sense at least six times in Psalms.

Again, according to Kittel,333 the Versions render testimonium ( JVny? for

the T37 in the Decalogue.

129Cf. Deut. 5:9 5X3Tk/? ; 5:10 ’JUStt ’*l»i/?7 ’inK1? . Rabinowicz

quotes 5:9 but overlooks 5:10. In his JQR article (loc . cit.) he regards the use

of XS731? (Ien5se) a "grave grammatical error." Rabinowicz transcribes

as lenossey. The cannot be doubled here. See also JC, loc. cit.

130

Of. Biblia Hebraica, ed. R. Kittel, Stuttgart, 195U, p. 271

131

Whereas Neubauer was content to say that my is Rabbinic, Rabinowicz in

his JQR article (op. cit. , p. 179) commented that it is "not Biblical Hebrew." After

reading my refutation of his assertion in the J£ (April 19, 1957, p. 20) he "miti¬

gated" the issue with this statement: "Thus, while the phrase appears nowhere in the

Bible, the very phrase is, on the other hand, used for expressing "false testimony"

in the Talmud, Succah 29a. It is therefore correct to state that my in the Sha-

pira texts is not Biblical but rabbinical." (JC, o£. cit., p. 13)

132Psalms 78:85} 80:1} 81:6} 119:88} 122:U. In the JC article of April

19, 1957, p. 25, this writer stated: "The word is m*7y , meaning 'testimony,'

and is more appropriate here than *iy . It is found mainly in the later books of

the Bible at least six times." When Rabinowicz attempted to refute this statement,

he wrote in jCTAugust 16, 1957) as follows: "For D*l*iy appears seven times

(not in the Tatter books') — the Psalms#" This writer used the word "later" and

not "latter"} moreover, he stated "at least six times."

133

, Cf. Biblica Hebraica, p. 109.

1 3u t

Cp. Exod. 20:16.

212 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

Here, Targum Onkelos, too, renders KJVnHQ for “IpS/ , clearly

"a false testimony" and not "a false witness," thus in agreement with Shapira's text.

All the versions could not have invented a word when the translations were made.

This does not imply that Shapira’s text is superior or more authentic? on the other

hand, this deviation from the Massoretic text cannot be taken as an evidence against

the authenticity of the document.

(10) Another argument raised by Neubauer, and blindly reproduced by Rabinowicz

in the JQR^'’ is that "Jehovah is used at the beginning of a document which is else¬

where entirely Elohistic." Gottstein^^ of the Hebrew University leads his readers

to believe that the text presented "a pure ’Elohist’ document of the Book of Deuter¬

onomy." He, too, at the time of writing had not checked his sources. Shapira's

text is not purely Elohist. Neubauer, too, is wrong in making this claim, for the

Hebrew tetragrammaton.Yahweh .occurs in the Shapira text at least twice, at the begin-

X37 X38

ning and at the end. However, this 'hoax' was used as one of the evidences

against the document.

139

(11) In his JQR article, in summarizing Neubauer 's objections to the authen¬

ticity of Shapira's Deuteronomy, Rabinowicz writes, "That the word 1 ’7 is written

plene contrary to the custom in early inscriptions." This is indeed an important

argument against Shapira's document. Now, the word "VJ "city" appears in the

^^op. eft., p. 179.

U&Th.

full statement reads: "Indeed, we can only smile when we see how a

clever forger intended to hoax Bible critics of the day by producing a pure 'Elohist'

document of the Book of Deuteronomy." "The Dead Sea Scrolls and the Shapira Forgery."

Jewish Chronicle, February 15, 1957, p. 15.

1 37

‘See Hermann Guthe^ op. cit., p. 22... ’3D VD Vk mil’.. .and the last

verse on p. 62 mrp 5D . Surely a forger who would embark upon such a task

would not have made such serious omissions at the beginning and at the end of the

text.

WSln M.

Gottstein's wording.

139

loc.

cit.

1958]

Mansoor — Shapira’s Dead Sea Scrolls

213

document twice in the singular but in each case it has the defective spelling, in

conformity with orthography in early inscriptions. Nowhere does it occur with Yod,

( “l’y ) , as Neubauer and Rabinowicz first claimed. In the meantime enough damage

has been done to discredit the document on this score, too. This careless statement

provoked a justified attack on Neubauer by the Daily News^4^ which claimed that he

had made statements against the Shapira Scroll without ever seeing the documents

themselves. This state of confused and careless 'scholarship' is clearly reflected

in the fact that Neubauer, in The Academy^^ , blames Ginsburg for this error and

corrects himself

August 22, 1883; see also the Academy, August 18, 1883. Neubauer here

admits that he wa3 convinced the scroll was a forgery before he saw it.

August 23, 1883. Neubauer writes: "I see from the published text of the

first two chapters of Deuteronomy, according to the Moabite sheepskins, that ii. 9

has Ar and not ir; why is it, then, translated by city, and not as Ar? City as a

conjectural rendering of the last word may be right in an exegetical commentary,

but not in a faithful reproduction of a new text. Such a method leads to misunder¬

standing." Neubauer later calls attention to some of Ginsburg 's "other blunders."

Rabinowicz presumably relied on Neubauer who relied on Ginsburg who made

the incorrect statement. Rabinowicz reproduces Neubauer 's false claim about the

plene spelling of "PJ? as evidence against the document. Nowhere in that article

does- he refer to the fact that it was subsequently corrected by Neubauer. He does

so in his JC article of August 9, 1937, p. 13, only after having read this writer's

reply to Gottstein in the JC (April 19, 1937, p. 20). Even here, Rabinowicz declares

that nowhere in his article did he regard “)’? "city," written plene , with a Yod

as the main argument against the genuineness of the Shapira document. "In fact,"

Rabinowicz continues, "after including it as a part of the statement made by

Neubauer and quoted as such in my article, I did not refer to it further at all;

for I am aware of the correction "iade subsequently by Dr. Neubauer on that point."

( JO, op . cit. , August 9, 1937, p. 13) To begin with, Rabinowicz did not quote

but summarized Neubauer 's objections but the general picture is quite disturbing.

It seems that Rabinowicz quoted Neubauer that was written plene , was aware

of the subsequent correction, but he did not subsequently inform his readers about

it; yet the plene form was a weighty argument against the authenticity of the document.

214 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

(12) Another careless statement, subsequently corrected,14'5 wa3 published by

Ginsburg^1 to the effect that the combination “jhVk does not occur in the

Old Testament and hence, he concluded, its presence in Shapira's text was caused by

a forger. In fact, two identical combinations plus two very similar ones are found

in Psalms. Despite the corrections, enough prejudice has been spread by these

incorrect statements.

(13) Ginsburg, in his report to the Principal Librarian of the British Mu¬

seum, -^6 after having stated that "the compiler of the Hebrew text was a Polish,

Russian, or German Jew, or one who had learned Hebrew in the North of Europe," re¬

marks that Jews there^4^ pronounce alike the letters Jl t and Q t. Ginsburg

goes on to state, "This accounts for the otherwise inexplicable spelling in this docu¬

ment of the word rendered ’frontlets' in our Authorized Version." He points out that

the word DDDO1? "frontlets peut. 6:8 is spelled nnnrfr f "thus betraying

not only the ignorance of the scribe but also the nationality of the compiler . "^9 jt

8This correction has escaped my notice in the reply which was published

in the Jewish Chronicle, April 19, 1957. This writer is indebted to Rabinowicz for

drawing his attention to this fact. (JC August 9, 1957, p. 13)

•^The Athenaeum, August 18, 1883, p. 206.

l^Psalms U5 s 8

U8:l£

50:7

67:7

‘I’n'pK □’n'?K “jncto

•pH1?* d’,iVk m ’D

’D3K *]’nVx o’h'pk

d’hVk i urns’

^^Dated August 22, 1883. Published in the Times on August 27, 1883. It is

also found in the British Museum dossier.

^^i.e. in Poland, Russia, or Germany.

1148 JC, August 9, p. 13 •

■^As explained by Rabinowicz, JC, o£. cit. , p. 13. This is rather a

surprising observation by a scholar like Ginsburg who had done a great deal of

work on the Massoretic text. (See next paragraph.) Here, Rabinowicz, as in the

other instances, quotes the 1883 arguments by Neubauer and Ginsburg against the

authenticity of the scroll, yet he shifts the responsibility of the errors which

he quoted to these two authors.

1958]

Mansoor — Shapira’s Dead Sea Scrolls

215

is admitted that this is a gross error but certainly in the light of the textual his¬

tory of the Massoretic Text this is not "inexplicable.,,

To begin with, one would obviously expect an ignorant scribe from Northern

Europe to confuse his "gutturals" more so than the letters D and Q ; but this is

not the case in Shapira's text. Secondly, we find the same "inexplicable spelling"

in the Old Testament, in the Qumran texts, and elsewhere. Is Rabinowicz, who endorses

Ginsburg and Neubauer's views, prepared to condemn ( in1?’1?!! ) several books of the

Old Testament because of the following "scribal errors," also committed because of the

similarity of their phonetic value?

In II Chron. 10:18 we read 0“nn for QTlX in the parallel passage of

I Kings 12:18; in Jeremiah 52:15 )*l&Xn for *p£>nn as in the parallel passage of

II Kings 25:11; in I Chron. 13:12 we read *]9n for *]’X in II Sam. 6:9 in the par¬

allel account. The Jewish compilers (of the Massoretic text) who made these errors

were certainly not Hungarian Jews who usually confuse the H and X .

Again in I Sam. 17:7 we find fTH as ketfb and as Qerf as read by LXX

and Vulgate. An Oriental Jew will normally not confuse his gutturals and surely the

Biblical scribe cannot be of Polish or Russian origin. The argument here is that

such errors were common. Kennicott^^ refers to their variant readings in the

Pentateuch, where T> and O are confused: cf. Gen. U:7 M.T. nDD1? -Var.K.flWD’? •

Exod. 7:U M.T. D’DDSn -Var.K. ; Gen. 33:11: M.T. ’WX1? -Var.K. ’^X1? ,1^2

Again we find that the Samaritan scribes also confused these two letters:

Gen. 15:10 M.T. Vim Sam. Pent. ITOH ; Deut. 12:3 M.T. DJ1XJ131 -Sam. Pent,

DJ1S031 ,1^3 In lQIsa 26:12 we read for M.T. nSC/n .

^®There are numerous similar scribal errors cited by A. Sperber, "Hebrew Based

Upon Biblical Passages in Parallel Transmission." HUCA, XIV, 1939. pp. 153-2U9.

^^Vetus Te stamen turn cum variis lectlonibus. 2 vols. Oxford, 1776-80. The

variant reading is here designated Var. 1C

152

It is left for the reader to guess the nationality of this scribe.

153

For more illustrations

1

cf. A. Sperber, op.

cit- . , p. l66.

216 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

(lU) Using the same argument,1^ Ginsburg points out that Vnn in Deut. 3:U^

is found as VlD in Shapira's. "Hence, when the compiler1^ of the text dictated

to the scribe the word , the latter spelled it ." Ginsburg and Rabino-

wicz, who reproduces this argument, conclude that this error is impossible unless the

copyist was a Polish or German Jew who pronounces n as 3 without a Dagesh.

The validity of this argument is dubious. The letter 3 at the beginning of

a word assumes the stronger sound k and it is therefore unlikely that a scribe will

begin a word with D when the sound is n , Even a Polish ignoramus is unlikely

to make such a mistake.

But a careful examination of the photographic reproduction of the text in the

British Museum dossier^® will clearly indicate that the reading is not Vlin but

’PHI (for 7^1 equals "border," "territory.")1"^ In Shapira's document

both 3 and I are almost identical in this Paleo-Hebrew script: 7 and 7

respectively.1*^0 Moreover, even if we read it as ^33 there is a possibility that

n his above-mentioned report.

See above, note 1U6 •

!U1K 7nn "the region of Argob."

■^Presumably a Jew from the North of Europe.

1^7

Gottstein apparently subscribes to this view too when he writes that the

"mistake 73D (sicl) would be impossible!" op. dt. JSS, 1956, p. 190.

31TK in Gottstein's article is probably a misprint for U5.*J|R and so is*l ’flEXTH

for “I’nKNin on p. 191. This writer, however, admits the use of ]iin03& in

Shapira's for the M.T. in’DOlft is a gross scribal error, but such errors existed

in the M.T., cf. in Isa. 33:1 (IQ Isa. nam'PDD )

^®See above, note 17.

1^9

7 TUI implies not only "boundary" but also "territory" (enclosed within

boundary). In this sense it is employed in Deut. 2:h and 19:3 and in numerous other

passages. (See W. Gesenius, A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament. Ox¬

ford, 1952, p. 11:8.) If so, “ nnx ‘P'lDl is a variant reading oT D1“IK Vim

both meaning "The territory of Argob."

160 , „

This can clearly be seen from (a) H. Guthe's facsimile of the script,

given in his book, (o£. cit. , p. 9U), and (b) the reproduction of the text in the

British Museum dossier. 3ee also "Character of the Script" in this article.

1958]

Mansoor — Shapira’s Dead Sea Scrolls

217

this interchange is due to a partial assimilation of 1 and 3

ity is quite common in the Semitic languages, in the Samaritan Pentateuch^^ and

This peculiar-

chl£

163

possibly in the word ’“ITIX in lQIsa 13:19 (for M.T. ’"IT3X "cruel.")

(15) Neubauer argues that the "except" in Deut. 1:36 is changed in

Shapira's documents to ’DVD , because the latter is "certainly less emphatic."^1

This is hardly convincing. Does any reader believe that the following verses in the

M.T. will become more emphatic if we substitute ’IlVlT for ’DVD ?

njna ox ’JiVn nn> o’iu To1?’.! Amos 3:3

OX ’JlVl IJliyOO iVnp “1 ’DO ]D’n Amos 3:U

OODX 00 ’FIX ’D^O ’ID 1 X1D X1? Gen. U3:3

too1? mn’1? dttp o’nVx’? noT Exod. 22:19

(There are other numerous illustrations from the Old Testament.) The reason for

the use of ’fVl is to be sought elsewhere. ’fVo was probably a word more

commonly used than ’JlVlT . It occurs over eighty times in different forms whereas

t occurs only sixteen times. The argument can be advanced that the scribe

believed he was rendering a service to his readers by employing a more frequently

^In Aramaic *1’! (Y. Ketubboth vi . 31a) and ^’D (Koheleth R. to verse

11,1) for "shore of sea or river.11 Cf1. tlgaritic £2 (C» Jean, "Dlctionaire des

Inscriptions Sernttlques de l'Ouest, _s.l.)j Place name "Kezib" is found in the Mlshna

as D’TD (Ralla iv. 8) an3 5'Vll ”(l« Halla iv. 8); Heb. , Aram.

"call out,"„ "bellow; " in Syriac an3 both forms are used; Heb. mQ and

Arab. gahada , "to deny" (a right); "disown;" Aram.KDID equals XD11

"wing." (Cf. M. Mansoor, "linguistic Aspects of the Qumran Texts." JSS HI, no. 1,

1958, pp. 1:0-55.)

l62Gen. 1U:23 M.T. “pltt -Sam. Pent. 1VTO ; Gen. 21:23 M.T. ’TDl5?

-Sam. Pent. ’“IllVT . (For more illustrations cf . A. Sperber, o£. cit., p. 165.)

163

Not necessarily a scribal error as some writers asserted. Cf. S. Zeitlin,

"The Hebrew Scrolls Once More and Finally." JQR, XII, p. 30 (1950-1951). These

and other scribal errors in Shapira's Deuteronomy refute M. Gottstein's contention

in "The Shapira Forgery and the Qumran Scrolls." ( JJS 1956, p. 191,) that such "text¬

ual types" do not occur in the Qumran texts.

^The Academy. August 25, 1883, p. 130.

218 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

used word. A similar tendency is observed in the Qumran version of the Isaiah scroll.

The copyist deliberately used more common words for less common ones: *l“l ’K ’ for

iVn’ in Isa. 13:10; D’Vll? for in Isa. 1:7:2.

Ginsburg records a similar charge against the document in his report to the

165

Principal librarian of the British Museum, pointing out that the forger substitu¬

ted oVyft (mg tC15m) for □’ID1? . Again, Gottstein categorically states that'^

"...not even one of the many peculiarities of the Qumran scrolls can be found in the

Deuteronomy scroll." This is clearly not valid.

1 67

(16) Rabinowicz, referring to Neubauer, states that "Another proof of the

ignorance of the compiler can be found in the omission to notice the transposition

of the two letters in the predicate applied to God, which, instead of saying

("He was angry") declares ("He committed adultery"). Ginsburg testified

that the compiler must have been very shrewd. Can we really believe that he would

make such a defamatory mistake deliberately?

This type of transposition of letters, especially in the presence of laryn-

geals, is made easier by the lack of vowel signs and is therefore not uncommon. We

witnessed the same phenomenon in the Samaritan texts and in the Qumran texts.

■^Dated August 22, 1883. Published in the Times on August 27, 1883. It is

also found in the British Museum dossier.

166

op. cit., JJS (1966), p. 190. Gottstein (p. 191) also refers to the

"impossible Qy Vy^t* in the paraphrase of Deut. 27:21 instead of DQi/’ ."

We know that this type of "grammatical deviation" is found in the Qumran texts, as

stated above.

JC, 0£. cit., August 9, 1957.

168

Several writers have already pointed out this peculiarity in both the Samar¬

itan and the Qumran writings. For numerous illustrations see M. Burrows, "Orthography,

Morphology and Syntax of St. Mark's Isaiah Manuscript," JBL (19U9), pp. 195-21 U;

G.R. Driver, The Hebrew Scrolls, London, 1951; M.H. Gottstein, "Studies in the Language

of the Dead Sea Scrolls, ff JJS, 3 (1953); H. Talon, "Lileson Ham-Megillot Hag-Genuzot,"

Sinai (1950), pp. 267-293, Jerusalem; P. Kahle, "Zur Aussprache des Hebraischen bei

den Samar i tanern, " Festschrift A. Bertholet, Tubingen, 1950; and M. Mansoor, "Lingu¬

istic Aspects of the Qumran Texts, ^JSS III, no. 1, 1958, pp. UO-55.

1958]

Mansoor — Shapira’s Dead Sea Scrolls

219

TES SHlFliU MB. OF DECTEROHOMY

Tib coaolwki Um orifiatl And tha tnniUUoo

°f MS. aa far aa it ty nooaaaary for the oon-

**■**7 <* aarratire. Tha rat of tha alipa

aontain duplicate Batter or ara onda-

dpWibia It will ba aaen that wa hare bare

Baarly vhola of Deaterooocnj in an abridged

farm.

ah brb owtn rfrr -to onto aoha

■ ’Town pya am nip [an] ad^ti nip

norito^ unHApS wan -fro oy hsa

onno ADtoi tw Vi -inwa ttb ny v-idti

non aasd irwn too to ny o w®

ram ontn nyo a1? . arroi onto

l®Dn toi Alton bai nwon ny toi nno

tu ■ onm r>* — -mw nato a y

, •wn ontm aa-d pan too ay a Kin

von • ny* m bo awn adit yon jtn

tanMyn no to dno /ud Him nya

pnDto tonm pram ton1? ddi1!] iN-ipm

rw uwi pntoV vyyrni mnoio iawai

Him dvd me byob nosm o:-mn -®i

nia odd in ooto onto in ,-nm

onto ow:h odd 'Anton ntoj moo nmn

nratn Dm -tS ann onom or-non ah

ntion nxrni and1? nDm -d® oano

odan mto Him ma onto ms -ani

onay awn phd Dnoto Damron opn

to ibda H1! Dto mown. n/ierto no®

» oto mown 1300 Tynan hVi iaiso

n3Dn mom So* oto onwp mown

PHD nw’Hi tooo dowd awn too to

mm . pi6 mro D-oa awhi nnnio

p mno DDfnH 'rornn odd -bn

mCorjn ovn . . . jm nntn naan pnn

[TroS] oto DO' up1! i/vsdi vnpn nn

! -pto onto nro nonN.n to oo* idaha

j onto unto Dito toner yo® . Dto ito

•pD^> toa into onto rut norm i nrw

nton dada-i vm ahl ittob ibid toon

oattwi tdd1! to cm -pso ton a®h

-jnotol 7 ADD 1A3WD DAH mDm AID1!

ain't oah omrpi Topoi iddbdi tad

[DA]DAD1 ITT TO JW/Vt) vm TV to

Tov aid onto a TU'n 7AD nno to

PD 'AAOV 13H1 totpn OI'D DTO AID

DAtnt a ahia aid — [qd3)-di onto

non odS nato mn . . . . nto ®nn oto

. aoh> canto

(Here follow* the Decalogue already printed,

Atken. No. 2911.)

AH om DADV DAH toA®- 1*0® ...

DTV DOSP ODA DP ABA1! HD1! fAm

DDDDto noHA h b non Aipn atit

hV ocrvtn to3 nton onm non ddi

onto .ntr ncH ah tdi ono hia

onto nvjr D omro VdVi njAto

too* xm iton ayn nn.n oton a ID'H

D3 • 73P mno Dj’3Dn Dnoev Hin nrn

1DH- nDH 1»DD O.ntontor APS -A AH

i IUH/J I UN iJl 7JB7Q OTHTOA DIAOTn

Two 73H nrn lApm notcoi iaiso ah

DtoH 7AfJTSD H1! a Dim Ajm om

ha® to ah! n pnn ah into yn: into

a hit i®h ovn p /in «np nvp ay o

onto ah DA'n onoo om ly onsoo

ah mpS am vito dvd dto . into

onom to ddad atoii oddha nto '3®~

®HA 1A0 AAD ODOV onto AD"! 1®H

OAPP Dnto AH DABSp ... “lApn OVD

to anto oto toiAHi adpo ‘nv oto

hahi ad nto 'Ten . . • ®nd man

ODIT1? /lto '3® AH TD®H1 DDAHOn

ov oiaiH nmn nia ODme totAHi

AADPD1 AD0D1 mia/TDl . nto QTDAH1

Aia . ODtoH AH OAT! OTOO AlHAA :

Ato '3® to too to Dton ton Him

mm torn mnn to top diphtd D3DH

/lton to onto DAD-1 . -P /vton] -3®1

AAD ODto ADA A®H OADAA AA1T AH

A®H PHD 03A1 to 03AA Sipn OI'D

to onto ton aohd pad ®npDi \n®v

Daton ah on-n oaoo psn ah i®ai

Dton aoha tops oai’o® nto onto nto

aad loia DDAia totAHi oonorto

1*0®A ? DDAj 3 nto OiaAHl ov DJIDAH

ODAH Arr®n HA1 H1AA DIED 03 Onto

a®!^ no i1? 1A3 iton iapasd to wad

naiH1? ddadhd [onto p®n pn] . . ton

. OOT.A too aAAHH OiniD AHDA OAH

Dton rntoH hva oanto [oton -d]

Hm] HA3A1 AD3A ton D3AHn '3AH1

AtoiTT AH 1AH n®T A®H Him intoCA

DDADH TTV PB3 0T3®3 • AHA3.A AH1

1H 'D ■ dai osi' ato mn n/u-ti] oaso1?

13H A®H mson to [AH 1]A0®A [DH]

DDton ah nanN1! A®to civn mso

Dton rni ■ i/ipn toDi idaa toD ADto

•p pnn A®H bo Dpon -®3H to AH

•]D ODlto [®]*H DS'A' Hb ■ ID ODtoA

pnn to '3t to n-rv odh pi DDm;t

DOJSb 1/13 13H AHA . a ID An L A Ai®H

U’OTA OH ADADn ah ntopi ADAD ovn

iyo®n nb oh ntopm ['Anm -JAiso to

on-n ODAH mso 13H a®h pnno oaaci

a®h pnn to oton ihd[' 'D mm]

riDADn ah AA3i nA®to now HD nAH

ton 'idt a.a to ntopm [onj] aa to

®o®n hdo pn rrvn adv’D [non]

. hao -lto ton bib) nC33] '3i’3Dn phd

friDi piHA [Sdt a;a to map ntoi

An to nop tom • ^At3i p a®h adai

DAtHl n®30 AD®n rmnA U’O® 0!A3

1[3J!]1 oru nn a 33 onto nop ■ P'3Di

DAH- A®N ®-HA -p[D] DA ^PD 1AOH1

iad1! iahi pa®- iad1? i^i unto aton

tad pn noHi roiyn to up adp

ad®a '1-DB.n 01? an ®np* A®H ®"lHn

[®n»n t*di ion iadhi qyn to upi a

. pn iadhi ovn to up phi oh addo

ah no- toi op’ ttb awh ®a*p: tad

ttb A®H ®-Hn -pD ■ pn 13P Y1H ®B3

noHi ojti to lip viva a®h ah hoo'

min ah n:3'j ttb a®h ®-ha td • ph

®-HA 1A[3 • PH 1A0H1 Qyn to] 13P

oyn to 131A np®S p[w]d yotr to a®h

®nD- ttb A»N ®At.A PD • 10H 1A0H1

PN 1A0H1 DPI to 13P lnyAD Ap®[' HjS

®D[A]n btt 13T H®3 to A®N [®-H.n] TD

®-HA td PH 1A0H1 DPI to 13P TOA

1A0H1 Dpi to [13pj l.A[y]A AN DAH- A®N

PDA to AH op- ABN ®-NA T^1 • 10s

or to lip oa[n] A®y[^ AHtln mnn

tolD noHA] iipi onto ibda . pn nom

ad®1? iton too yo®n ya® on qha oa

to ito’ ihdi imso to a[n nwb

n/lH TO Aia AAH to r6Nn ADADA

130D -AS TO 1AANB1 1H3B TO m®D

TO 13NS AAA®P Is'ltN] A3® 1A0AH *AB1 |

itoH in- 1ANS3 nAN TDI 1NDD AAH ,

nDADn AH onto is- 1131 OSll ID’N AN

iNm rnp Qi’i i1? oton lop- T* n®yo toD

to DtoH nns- TO ihaa vana -oy to

i[A]yD tan [ao:o nto oo®a ah

mV. A] NT AAN [I D1DAJ OAT Alton A

. . . nooli] n-nn Nil [toyoi] A-m

AH D-tton 1DDM] - DDAD[N] - AO

toCO] nCOH-JI 13P1 *lDy AA A3[D] DCA313

'XDJS n[wp] APN ®['N]A AAN [0]A

oyn to up ®m ’[a]> [n]®yo adooi

n®p a®;n ®-na a]an p[N iaon]i

oyn to up Vtoito Town ovd noNto

13P 10N1 UN topo AA[N ION 1A0]N1

myA ADO AAN . PN 1A0N1 Dpi to

AAH • pH IADHI oyn to 13P AADD

A®N1 1A®D an® to “in dap- awn ®-na

to oy too' a®ni min awn ah ini'

aan . pn iaoni qyn to up aoad

. pn iaoni oyn to up myn boo t[d]o

UP Ap®*l -D®D I’D®' awn W'NA AAN

nn® np1? aan • ion iaoni oyn to

iaoni oi-n to UP inoyD npwtny Ai-Jn1?

to 1[3T N®]- AWN W-NA AAN . PN

tobi [ia]on toi iad toi myA awn

1 AAN . PN IAONI oyn to Up Vl AWN

to up ato inn an niw- awn w-n.a

N^ AWN W'NA AAN ■ ION IAONI DPI

AwyV A(N!]n m.Ajnn nan to an Dtp]'

1B[D]A • PN IAONI Dim to UP DAH

N1! DN mm 1A0H-1 OA ppo NApi D'iSa

to ah awi6 ao:®1?] iton Spa vowa

ntopn to ito wdi iAp[n]i iaiso

m®D AAH [A]AH1 AyD AAH AAN tllNn

1303 'AB AAH 1AAHW1 1H3[D] AAH

A paper from The Athenaeum, August 18, 1883, reproducing the transcription

of portions of the Deuteronomy fragments.

220 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

E. Wiirtheitj also refers to such cases as Isa. 9:18 M.T. 01)273 and lQIs 091)3 5

Isa. 32:19 and lQIsa 19 , etc.169

(17) The fact that Shapira's text uses the word $n "neighbour" once in¬

stead of nK "brother" as in the remaining three times is also taken as internal

evidence against the scroll. Is there any criterion in Hebrew or in the Old Testa¬

ment relating to the use of 91 and nK synonymously? The Pentateuch alone uses

these two words as synonyms scores of times. Why neither some of the 1883 scholars

nor Mr. Rabinowicz explained what was wrong with the usage of either word meaning

"brother" or "neighbour" is mystifying.

170

(18) One of the "minor slips" in the document, according to Neubauer, is

the use of the singular in the remaining part of the Decalogue. Some of the verbs

cited are 13911 for 713911 and “infiETl for mnnCTl . This so-called irregu¬

larity occurs in the text with H"’? verbs only. Rabinowicz, in referring to the

171

analysis of the text made by Neubauer and Ginsburg, explains that this was inten¬

ded by the forger to be the second person singular from the root *139 , "in imita-

172

tion of the archaic form on the Moabite Stone, where it occurs twice." Rabinowicz,

however, fails to point out that infltLtfl , which occurs in the document, does not

appear in the Moabite Stone. It seems that anything that did not suit the purposes

of Ginsburg and Neubauer has been regarded either as an imitation of the Moabite

l69E. Wurthein. The Text of the Old Testament. English Edition, Oxford,

(1957), p. 72. See also Z. Ben-Hayytm, Studies in the Traditions of the Hebrew Lang¬

uage. Madrid, 195U, p. 89.

17°Cf. Rabinowicz, JQR, op. cit., p. 179 ♦

171

op. cit., JC, August 16, 1957.

^7^It is interesting to note that Ginsburg in his translation of the text in

the London Times, August 8, 17, 1883, used the singular throughout. Guthe also did

not regard this as an error.

1958]

221

Mansoor — Shapira’s Dead Sea Scrolls

ITi

Stone or as a clever fabrication by the forger. The same charge had been applied

to the separation of the words in the Decalogue and the insertion of a full stop

after every word, "exactly as it is in the Moabite Stone, which here was obviously

imitated. "Hk

175

(19) In stun, Rabinowicz in his articles in the Jewish Chronicle over¬

looked^-^ the fact that in December 1956^H before a gathering of about three hundred

178

Bible and Semitic scholars, and again in April 1957, this writer refuted

most of the arguments advanced by Neubauer, Ginsburg, Clermont-Ganneau, and those

179

repeated by Rabinowicz. By suitable documentation it was also pointed out that

l80

Rabinowicz made at least ten errors in his 1956 contribution to the JQR. Most of

H^The following is a typical instance: In the Fourth Commandment, the

clause I’d’ ITD’IK’ is absent in one of the Shapira fragments but appears

in the duplicate. Ginsburg, in his report, argues that the forger cleverly suggests

the "existence of a different recension." (In his report to E. A. Bond, published

in the Times, August 27, 1883.) It is worthy to point out that here in the following

excerpt from the Decalogue "] 5 pO’IK’ *]V DO” the

Exodus version has lost the first clause ']'? though it is

preserved in LKX.

^kQpt git. , JC, August 9, 1957.

^-’August 9, 16 respectively. Rabinowicz writes (August 16) "It is

significant that in his lengthy attack against everybody who regards the texts

as a forgery. Professor Mansoor refers to one single criticism only and keeps

completely silent on all others."

^^For in a letter to the Editor of the JC (April 19, 1957) this writer

referred to the Annual Meeting of the Society ofHBiblical literature.

177

At the ninety-second meeting of the Society of Biblical literature and

Exegesis held at the Union Theological Seminary in New York (December 27-28).

See also "Proceedings, Dec. 27-28, 1956," JBL (1957) LXXVI, Part I, p. i.

^®At the joint mid-west meeting of the SBLE and AOS held in Dubuque,

April, 1957.

^^At both meetings a sixteen page pamphlet was distributed to the

members. It included an abstract, Ginsburg' s conclusions, Rabinowicz's objections

in the JQR, the Decalogue, parallel texts, excerpts from the document, the

refutation of internal evidence, Guthe's facsimile of the Phoenician alphabet, and

finally an extensive bibliography spread over three pages. All quotations and

sources referred to in the papers were documented. Copies of these pamphlets

were sent at the time to some of the leading scholars in the United States, Israel,

and Europe including W. F. Albright, S. Mowinckel, G. R, Driver, E. Vogt,

H. H. Rowley, and the Editor of the Jewish Chronicle.

^•^op. cit.

222 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

these errors have been mentioned above. Surely Rabinowicz could not have expected

181

this writer to produce all these documentations in the Jewish Chronicle .

K. Contents and Nature of Texts.

(20) It is important to bear in mind that this new text is greatly compres¬

sed, occupying less than a third of the space taken up by the corresponding text in

182

the Old Testament. It also contains the same text twice.

-i D o

The corresponding text in the Old Testament as given by Guthe J is as fol¬

lows:

Deut. 1:1,5 >7* * 8-9,19,20; Num. lii:21ff; Dent. l:3Uff; Dent. 2:2U-37; 3:1a; 2:17-23;

Num. 21:31-33; Deut. 3:1b, 2-11; Num. 25:1-8; 16-18; Num. 31:1-20; Deut. U:3,Hi,2,

23,39-iiO; Deut. 6:U-9; 5:2; 5:5-19; Exod. 20:19; Deut. 5:25; Deut. 9:1; 7:17-19;

9:3; 7:20; 9:6-11; 9:22; 10:1-1;; 9:23-25; 10:15-17; 10:21-22; 11:22-29; 27:11-11;;

28:1-13; 27:lU-26; 20:15-20, 25 ,37 ,U3-UU ,63 ; 31:1-6.

The sequence of the texts is significant. The selection of the Deutero-

nomical texts is a logical one, the theme of which being Moses' last speech to the

18U

Israelites before his death.

It can be summarized as follows: First there is an historical survey of the

experiences of Israel in the desert. Here Moses mentions that, at Beth Pe*or, after

the victory over the Midianites, he had received from Elohim the injunction to teach

the Israelites laws and rules which they were to observe in the land about to be

conquered. This is followed by the Decalogue. Then a series of blessings and curses

1 ftl

^In fact, after Rabinowicz' s allegations a thirteen page article was sent

to the Jewish Chronicle , the Editor of which justifiably thought the article too

long for a reply in a non-professional weekly.

l82Guthe, op. cit., p. 63.

l83Ibid., pp. 22-62.

*8^A fuller analysis is given in Guthe' s work, ibid., pp. 86 ff,

223

1958] Mansoor — Shapira’s Dead Sea Scrolls

is given to the people by Moses. Finally Moses indicates that Joshua will be his

successor as the leader of the people into the Promised Land. The main emphasis

seems to be the love of only one God and of His commandments. All the remaining

material in the canonical text is — whether deliberately or not — excluded.

It is clear that Shapira’s Deuteronomy displays a skilfully abridged manual

compiled from Deuteronomy with interpolations from other books of the Pentateuch wit!

Moses' last speech as a theme. It is also probable that the "Dires de Moise" is

a similar compilation. In these Qumran Deuteronomic texts we find interpolations

from Leviticus, Numbers, just as is the case with Shapira's text.

Shapira1 s Decalogue.

(21) Another main internal argument against the document was given in Gins-

burg’s report-1 to Bond, in respect to the form of the Decalogue. It reads as fol¬

lows:

Taking for granted that because the canonical text already contains two

recensions of the Decalogue no insurmountable objection would be raised

against a third recension provided it exhibited the Biblical precepts, the

forger manifestly made the Ten Commandments the groundwork of his text.

Accordingly he not only modelled the Decalogue after the pattern of Leviti¬

cus XVIII and XIX, but derived his additions from those chapters. Thus the

refrain, 'I am God, thy God,' which he inserted ten times is simply a vari¬

ation of the longer refrain, 'I am the Lord your God' which occurs exactly

ten times at the end of the ten precepts or groups of precepts, Leviticus

(XVIII, 2,U,30; XIX, 2,3»U,10,25»31»3U) . Again, what is here the seventh

commandment is made up from Leviticus XIX, 12, while the additional tenth

commandment is simply Leviticus XIX, 17."

Several other scholars such as Neubauer published similar conclusions.

Again this is not unusual. We find two recensions of the Decalogue in the M.T. it¬

self; the Samaritan version again manifests some differences from the M.T. The Deca¬

logue was an important and well-known text, hence it must have contained several

Qumran Cave I, pp. 91-9U.

^"^See note 16£.

224 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

variations. This can be confirmed by comparing the versions. The combinations pre¬

sented by Shapira's form of the decalogue do not seem to harmonize with any plan

that is likely to have occurred to a forger.

It seems more plausible to assume that the passage of the Decalogue, for

instance, reads more like a paraphrase, like part of a manual of instruction for

popular use, than as a recension of part of the Bible.

An analogy may be seen in the Nash Papyrus1 which contains a somewhat dam¬

aged copy of the decalogue in a form which follows partly Exod. 20:2 ff. and partly

Deut. 5:6 ff., followed by Deut. 6:U f.nThis arrangement shows that we have here not

a fragment of a Bible scroll, but a short collection of texts for liturgical, edify-

188 189

ing, or educational purposes." Albright, in 1937, declared, on the basis of

190

paleographical indications that it was of Maccabean origin. It is interesting to

note here that the sixth and seventh commandments appear in reverse order and that

the second portion from Deuteronomy, mentioned above, is introduced by a phrase not

in the M.T., but found in LXX.

The practice of interpolations or insertions from other Pentateuchal books

was not unknown in the Qumran texts. Frank M. Cross, Jr., in his report'll observes,

"Additions of so-called 'Samaritan’ type are often found; thus after Num. 27:23

there is an insertion taken from Deut. 3:21, which occurs otherwise in the Samaritan

192

tradition...." Again, we read in that report that "Deut. 5:28-29 is combined

with Deut. 18:18-19 followed by Num. 2U:l5-17 and Deut. 33s8-ll."

First published by S.A. Cook in the Proceedings of the Society of Bibli¬

cal Archaeology (1903), pp. 3U ff.

188

E. Wurtheim, op. cit. , p. 2u.

189

W.F. Albright, "A Biblical Fragment from the Maccabaean Age: the Nash

Papyrus." Journal of Biblical literature, LVI , 1937, pp. 1U5-176.

190

P. Kahle assigns it on internal grounds to the time before the destruction

of the Temple in A.D. 70. See E. Wurtheim, loc. cit.

191

"Editing the Fragments from Qumran." Biblical Archaeologist, XIX, Decem¬

ber 1956, pp. 75-96. See report of Frank M. Cross, "Cave U of Qumran (UQ)", p. 83»

^•^Ibid., see report of John M. Allegro, p. 92.

1958]

Mansoor — Shapira’s Dead Sea Scrolls

225

The present writer believes that, in the light of recent discoveries and of

what has been stated above, neither the internal nor the external evidence, so far

as yet published, supports the idea of a forgery. Therefore, this writer firmly

believes that there is Justification in his suggestion for a re-examination of the

case* *

193

Perhaps it is appropriate to conclude with the words of The Echo, "From

the moment that the discoveries were declared to the world there was an eagerness in

many quarters, quite inconsistent with the true spirit of criticism or scholarship,

to stigmatize them as forgeries."

"The freedom to ask questions, to search for truths through

careful and honest inquiry and to teach the results of such inquiry

is the heart and core of one great freedom of mankind."*

193August 23, 1883.

*FVora a public address on academic freedom by Dr. E.B. Fred, President of

the University of Wisconsin, delivered on February 15, 1957. This writer wishes to

express his thanks to the University Research Committee in the Graduate School for

making this research possible.

WHOLENESS OF EFFECT IN THE GOLDEN BOWL

John J. Enck

University of Wisconsin, Madison

The Golden Bowl contains the fascinations and puzzles which

distinguish an Alter swerk. To the extent that an assured master

accomplishes seemingly impossible feats with structure and idiom

its uniqueness renders defining precisely what he achieves, quite

apart from an evaluation, the more hazardous. Although some pas¬

sages sound so idiosyncratic that they verge on self-parody, the

novel, if nearly a summary, does not recapitulate a balanced total

from earlier titles. The familiar reveals heretofore undetected im¬

plications; the new defies timeworn categories; the whole looks

simultaneously constructed and irregular, designed and free. In¬

creasingly during the past several years articles about aspects of

The Golden Boivl have by extracting one strand, perhaps, forced

themselves to distort these intricate proportions. In the preface

James cautions the reader, “Their chronicle strikes me as quite of

the stuff to keep us from forgetting that absolutely no refinement

of ingenuity or of precaution need be dreamed of as wasted in that

most exquisite of all good causes the appeal to variety, the appeal

to incalculability, the appeal to a high refinement and a handsome

wholeness of effect.”1 As the facade of James’ style grows more

polished, the efforts to subordinate elements of the story in proper

sequence multiply for a critic. With The Golden Bowl, in the basic

terms of plot and cast, James confines himself most rigorously, and,

on the other hand, by his perennial game of hiding how much any¬

one knows, he rarely hints so extravagantly. The sonorous prose

belongs fully to the late period, but it veers frequently toward the

luxuriance of poetry. The ultimate novel he completed offers the

not unexpected paradox of exhibiting Jamesian traits and ending

up not quite Jamesian. A commentator must try to relate story,

characters, style, and themes separately with an awareness that

they eventually fuse into almost an unbreakable unity. Whatever

its final implications, it started and grew in a tested manner.

“Taking his single precious germ he meditated upon it, let it

develop, scrutinized and encouraged, compressed and pared the de¬

velopments until he had found the method by which he could dram-

1 Henry James, Novels and Tales , 26 vols. (New York, 1907—1917), XXIII, p. vii.

All quotations from the New York Edition will hereafter follow parenthetically in the

text. When the same title has two volumes, the volume is in Roman and the pages in

Arabic numerals.

227

228 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

atize it, give it a central intelligence whose fortune would be his

theme, and shape it in a novel or a story as a consistent and self-

sufficient organism.”2 Without any danger of oversimplification,

the central conflicts of The Golden Bowl fit into a paragraph. Adam

Verver, a widower and an American collector commanding unlim¬

ited wealth, lives in England with his daughter Maggie, engaged to

Prince Amerigo. This match has been engineered largely by Mrs.

Assingham. Shortly before the wedding Charlotte Stant, an Ameri¬

can friend of Maggie’s, turns up. Charlotte has had an affair in

Italy with the Prince; it terminated chiefly because neither had

money enough to permit them to marry. The Prince accompanies

Charlotte when she shops for a wedding present. They find a glass

bowl encrusted with gold; because a crack mars it and because a

less recherche gift will not do, she purchases nothing. After the

marriage Maggie, sensing Verver’s loneliness without her, arranges

for him to marry Charlotte. Soon Maggie with her son spends

most of her time in her father’s company ; inevitably Charlotte and

the Prince renew their affair. Maggie herself happens upon the

bowl and buys it. When the worried dealer calls to explain the flaw,

he identifies Charlotte and the Prince from their previous expedi¬

tion. Maggie discusses the discovery with Mrs. Assingham, who

deliberately breaks the bowl. Neither violence nor others can rescue

Maggie. By a series of delicate maneuvers she persuades Verver

to return with Charlotte to the United States while she and the

Prince remain in Europe.

Besides the four principals, only two others of any importance

participate in the story. Mrs. Assingham and her husband, a retired

colonel, at times watch the scene like a Greek chorus which specu¬

lates extensively but not very brightly on what it observes and at

others nearly like the stage manager of a Chinese play who manipu¬

lates the actors while remaining apart from their troubles. James

himself expected to compose a nouvelle when he mentioned in his

notebook, “Meanwhile in my path stands — appears at least to

stand — brightly soliciting, the idea I jotted down a year ago, or

more, and that has lain there untouched ever since.”3

The structure of this long novel, divided into two parts, further

complicates its enigmas. The first volume, “The Prince,” assigns

Amerigo the duties of the recording intelligence ; the second, “The

Princess,” more rigorously calls on Maggie to see and deliberate.

The six books, three in each volume, run to different lengths. Time

gives the illusion of flowing evenly through many reveries, but

James, as usual, glosses over the more obvious events, such as mar-

2 R. P. Blackmur, The Lion and the Honeycomb (New York, 1955), p. 247.

3 The Notebooks of Henry James, edd. P. O. Matthiessen & Kenneth B. Murdock

(New York, 1947), p. 187.

1958]

Enck — The Golden Bowl

229

riage ceremonies and the Principino’s birth. The subjective analyses

have fostered diametric views about the reliability of observers and

details which they suppress or ignore. Nominally Maggie, whose

quietness triumphs, would appear the heroine, but Jean Kimball’s

article proclaims Charlotte, “Henry James’s Last Portrait of a

Lady.”4 She fails to enlist an ally, Joseph J. Firebaugh, who outdid

her in declaring, “All Charlotte’s wonderful possibilities are to be

subordinated to the service of an ideal of perfect and absolute

beauty. Charlotte with her great power for passion is to suffer the

induration of being moulded into a gilded image in the temple of

pure art.”5 The father and daughter, suspiciously devoted to each

other, emerge staid sinners against spontaneity. Verver suffers not

only because of his possible role as a puppeteer, indirectly control¬

ling the rest, but also as a capitalist. “But quaint or not, James be¬

lieved in the moral fineness and sweetness of the old-time simpler

American, and believed, too, that even if Mr. Verver was a bil¬

lionaire, he could still be colored by those qualities.”6 Probably no

one has yet championed the Prince without qualifications, although

he sometimes sinks allegorically to “not Columbo. Amerigo, the

false discoverer of the Americans. ... He is the somewhat rotten

apple, the worm-eaten fruit of the sinful ages of man.”7 Deeper in

this murky realm of myth Mrs. Assingham comes a cropper.

“Fanny, the stem, is the kind of thinking which holds the cup aloft,

which relates mankind to a world materially conceived.”8 Such

diversity, more ingenious than prudent, in the terms James pro¬

posed for the novel quite satisfies variety, revels in incalculably,

lacks refinement, and makes a shambles of wholeness.

The prose, everybody agrees, is of a piece throughout. Formerly

its cautious pace annoyed brash contemporaries. “They [the char¬

acters] are presented to one as vibrating exquisitely to every fine

chord of life, as thinking about each other with the anxious subtlety

of lovers, as so steeped in a sense of one another that they invent a

sea of poetic phrases, beautiful images, discerning metaphors that

break on the reader’s mind like the unceasing surf. . . . For the

metaphors are so beautifully and completely presented to the mind

that it retains them as having as real and physical an existence as

the facts.”9 The vogue for sorting metaphors has caught up with

4 Jean Kimball, “Henry James’s Last Portrait of a Lady: Charlotte Stant in The

Golden Bowl,” American Literature, XXVIII (January, 1957), pp. 449-468.

5 Joseph J. Firebaugh, “The Ververs,” Essays in Criticism, IV (October, 1954),

p. 408.

n F. O. Matthiessen, Henry James : the Major Phase (New York, 1946), pp. 90-91.

7 Myron Ochshorn, “Henry James: The Golden Bowl,” New Mexico Quarterly , XXII

(Autumn, 1952), p. 341.

8 Quentin Anderson, The American Henry James (New Brunswick, New Jersey,

1957), p. 333.

9 Rebecca West, Henry James (New York, 1916), pp. 110-112.

230 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

James, who yields his share of beasts, gardens, money, and oceans.1”

The findings may produce some usable results, but his figures of

speech generally lack the sudden shocks which render metaphysical

poetry dramatic. In the novels he demonstrates how to dramatize

the material, to relate description and characters so that no detail

lacks relevance.11 The metaphors extend such preoccupations and

seldom clash with them. Particularly after he dictated from drafts

his mind isolated the crucial nuance in refinements of resemblance

rather than the violence of contrast. The Golden Boivl, proliferating

into nearly eight hundred pages, has variety, but the riches of be¬

havior and thought relate to a narrow compass. Phrases, grudging

as they are, from the earlier complaint offer revealing clews:

“break on the reader’s mind . . . real ... as the facts.” The corre¬

spondence between the literal and figurative language, so close that

the entire volume ebbs with a beat between prose and poetry, may

provide one way of apprehending wholeness. As Wallace Stevens

observes about the bowl in an earlier context :

Or ever

the silver cord be loosed, or the golden bowl be broken, or the pitcher be

broken at the fountain, or the wheel broken at the cistern —

. . . These images have a special interest, as a group of images in har¬

mony with each other. In both prose and poetry, images come willingly

but, usually, although there is a relation between the subject of the

images there is no relation between the images themselves. A group of

images in harmony with each other would constitute a poem within, or

above, a poem. The suggestion sounds euphuistic.12

This patterned imagery, its euphuistic prominence lacking the

complications, inherent in human agents and susceptible of mod¬

erately disinterested judgments, conveniently falls around two

topics which James treated throughout his career. They may serve

as impersonal “reflectors” to place the characters and the signifi¬

cance of their conduct. For convenience one might label them the

tourist and the museum or, more broadly, in their usual terms, the

international episode and the work of art. In this last volume the

magnificence attendant upon travel and aesthetics transcends being

an adjunct of life and becomes, nearly, a mode of living. Random

examples underline differences: the grandeur of Verver’s acquisi¬

tions and the futile copies which Newman commissions from Made¬

moiselle Noemie; Amerigo’s lineage, filling a room in the British

10 For studies which include discussions of imagery, inter alia, see: Miriam Allott,

"Symbol and Image in the Later Work of Henry James,’’ Essays in Criticism, III

(July, 1953), pp. 321-336; R. W. Short, “Henry James’s World of Images,” PMLA,

LXVIII (December, 1953), pp. 943-960; Dorothea Krook, “The Golden Bowl,” Cam¬

bridge Journal, VII (September, 1954), pp. 716-737 ; Priscilla Gibson, "The Uses of

James’s Imagery: Drama through Metaphor,” PMLA, LXIX (December, 1954), pp.

1076-1084.

n Aspects of James’ dramatization beyond style appear in P. N. Furbank, “Henry

James: the Novelist as Actor,” Essays in Criticism, I (October, 1951), pp. 404-420.

“Wallace Stevens, The Necessary Angel (New York, 1951), p. 78.

1958]

Enck — The Golden Bowl

231

Museum, compared with Prince Casamassima’s ; the abundance of

pieces at Fawns set beside the precision of furnishings in Poynton;

Maggie’s growing strength opposed to the failing Milly Theale; the

stakes which Charlotte might win balanced against Madame Merle’s

ambitions.13 The list extends into many ramifications. Appropri¬

ately, James’ earliest memory was glimpsing from a carriage win¬

dow the Place Vendome, not only the buildings around a fashion¬

able square in a foreign capital but also its column decorated with

bas-relief made of cannon melted down from loot taken by Napo¬

leon.14 The museum and the traveler represent extremes : its works

of art connote order, the permanent, perhaps transcendence, but,

also, the dead; the wanderer, his encounters including museums,

represents life, discontinuity, chance, and, sometimes, chaos. The

photographs which comprise the frontispieces of the New York

Edition bear out this scheme; the first volume has the shop dis¬

playing the bowl and the second a town house but most prominent

is a carriage. Even these ultimate images, however, oppose less than

they complement each other. Without pretending to completeness

or denying the validity of other figurative patterns, a selected list

indicates values in The Golden Boivl. These speculations have spun

out quite enough abstract theory because, in T. S. Eliot’s memor¬

able observation, James “had a mind so fine that no idea could

violate it.”15

The novel opens with the Prince strolling down Bond Street past

shopwindows with “objects massive and lumpish, in silver and gold

. . . the loot of far-off victories.” (/ 3) Maggie identifies him with

these, “what they call a morceau de musee.” (1 12) Mrs. Assingham

assures him that he is “practically in port. The port ... of the

Golden Isles.” (I 27) The Prince has ceased wandering, and his

name relates him not with the discoverer of the New World but

with the Italian commemorated on maps. His family has variously

distinguished itself through the ensuing centuries. Maggie, a tour¬

ist, the student of guidebooks, causes the Prince to reflect, “She

had images, like that, that were drawn from steamers and trains,”

(1 15) modern transportation which distresses him. Within the first

hundred pages the other characters have joined their particular

allegiances. The Assinghams’ marriage resembles “a kind of hyme¬

neal Northwest Passage,” {I 36) and when she expresses elation

her cry “might have signified the sharp whistle of the train that

33 Christof Wegelin, “The ‘Internationalism’ of The Golden Bowl," Nineteenth-

Century Fiction, XI ("December, 1956), pp. 161-181; this article sees The Golden Bowl

as the culmination of James’ international novels but barely suggests how it tran¬

scends them.

14 Leon Edel, Henry James, the Untried Years, 18^3-1870 (Philadelphia, 1953), pp.

81-83.

13 T. S: Eliot, “On Henry James,” reprinted in The Question of Henry James, ed.

F. W. Dupee (New York, 1945), p. 110.

i

232 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

shoots at last into the open.” (/ 76) Her husband becomes the sup¬

plier of museums, for she accuses him of having “taken part in the

sack of cities,” (I 83) when with the army. Verver figuratively

enters the museum by being literally a collector. He will retire even¬

tually to his American City as its patron-custodian. Charlotte, in

contrast with Maggie the tourist and Mrs. Assingham the explorer,

is the uncomfortable roamer. As Mrs. Assingham describes her,

“she has no home — absolutely none whatever. She’s extraordinarily

alone .... owns almost nothing in the world she tells me, but two

colossal trunks.” (I 39-fO) Neither sort of image has inherently

the more favorable aspect. The junk which Charlotte and the Prince

reject shows the tawdry aspects of heterogeneous bric-a-brac. The

counterpart of Mrs. Assingham’s Northwest Passage becomes the

minor figure, a Mrs. Ranee, whose home looms “from afar as so

lost, so indistinct and illusory, in the great alkali desert of cheap

Divorce.” (/ 133) Verver himself, while a capitalist, resembled a

conquistador; his cultivation of art, a discovery compared with

Cortez’ astonishment in Keats’ sonnet, made “his feet settle.” (I

1U9) Having been promptly defined, the pattern does not remain

static.

As their broodings disturb them more trenchantly, an indolence

juggles the characters and their symbols. After marrying Verver,

Charlotte refers to herself as “just fixed — fixed as fast as a pin

stuck up to its head in a cushion.” (/ 256) The Prince observes the

four of them as all in one boat, “a good deal tied up at the dock, or

anchored, if you like, out in the stream.” (I 270) Here, as else¬

where, James’ dialogue incorporates colloquialisms while sustaining

all the traits of his narration.16 Later Colonel Assingham mixes a

metaphor while explaining Charlotte to his wife; “Gratitude to the

Prince for not having put a spoke in her wheel — that, you mean,

should, taking it in the right way, be precisely the ballast of her

boat?” (/ 282) The Colonel, as characterized by this remark, com¬

bines an odd mixture of shrewdness and confusion. When their

former passion is about to overwhelm Charlotte and the Prince,

she turns up like a gypsy “in a shabby four-wheeler and a water¬

proof,” (I 299) and at the Prince’s asking her why she has not used

her own carriage, she replies, “It makes me feel as I used to — when

I could do as I liked.” (/ 299) Their interview stretches out length¬

ily; both verge on a kind of claustrophobia. Their embrace signs

their betrayal in an image of the ocean and a destruction compar¬

able with the sack of cities. “Then of a sudden, through this tight¬

ened circle, as at the issue of a narrow strait into the sea beyond,

19 A longer discussion of this topic occurs in : H. K. Girling, “The Function of Slang

in the Dramatic Poetry of The Golden Boiol,” Nineteenth-Century Fiction, XI (Sep¬

tember, 1956), pp. 130-147.

1958]

Enck — The Golden Bowl

23.3

everything broke up, broke down, gave way, melted and mingled.”

(I 312)

The first part establishes the images properly, then modulates

them; the ensuing section reverses and parodies them. Charlotte,

always the more aggressive, emerges socially triumphant over

Maggie and has “mounted cheerfully the London treadmill,” (/

317 ) so that, still in motion, she does not progress. A figure more

congenial to her temperament grows weirdly overpolished, for in

public between the Prince and her now exists “a mystic golden

bridge . . . strongly swaying and sometimes almost vertiginous.”

(I 325) Mrs. Assingham, too, bogs down: “she must stand exactly

where everything has, by her own act, placed her.” (I 341) The

Prince and Charlotte, meanwhile, seek “a meaning that their asso¬

ciated sense was to drain even as thirsty lips, after the plough

through the sands and the sight, afar, of the palm-cluster, might

drink in at last the promised well in the desert.” (I 346) From its

opening the novel has narrowed to where, although all flutters

quietly, nothing rests, and everyone pulsates with uneasiness be¬

fore his prospects. “Don’t you think too much of ‘cracks’ and aren’t

you too afraid of them? I risk cracks,” (I 359) Charlotte repri¬

mands the Prince. No one at this point, Charlotte included, risks

much, and Mrs. Assingham declares at the end of the volume,

“Nothing — in spite of everything — will happen. Nothing has hap¬

pened. Nothing is happening.” (I 400)

The beginning of the second volume contains one of the most

strikingly subtle passages James shaped. Through a long interior

monologue Maggie seeks to isolate one adequate explanation of a

melancholy which she cannot define. The listed possibilities depict

her stalking around and around an ornate structure, a combina¬

tion of prince and billionaire, husband and father, stepmother and

rival, confidante and betrayer, “some wonderful beautiful but out¬

landish pagoda, a structure plated with hard bright porcelain, col¬

oured and figured and adorned.” (II 3) While scrutinizing this

image, she cannot make out where she might have entered, had she

wished. Pushing deeper into the implications of this mood, she

reviews her impressions “like a roomful of confused objects, never

as yet ‘sorted,’ ” (II 14) for she is not adept at catalogues. Her in¬

activity is literally true; she prefers spending time indoors with

her father and her son while Charlotte and the Prince, by attending

to social obligations, “held the field and braved the weather.” (II

22) As her thoughts weave extravagant metamorphoses, the shift¬

ing images become so rich that no paraphrase can avoid oversim¬

plifying them. She translates Charlotte into a fourth wheel, as

ideally she would have appeared upon marrying Verver and com¬

pleting the households. Maggie realizes dimly that the way they

234 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

live suggests her father and she rest inside a coach; “Amerigo and

Charlotte were pulling it while she and her father were not so much

as pushing. They were seated inside together, dandling the Princi-

pino.” (II 23) In moments of comparative calm, regaining her

former self-possession, she remains adrift, “as if she had somehow

been lifted aloft, were floated and carried on some warm high tide.”

(II 2U-25) Her uneasiness persists with Charlotte, “the effect of

throwing over their intercourse a kind of silver tissue of decorum.

It hung there above them like a canopy of state.” (II 38) The two

concepts, the nearly native one for her of floating and the alien one

of being beneath a canopy, join to summarize and caricature her

situation : “They had built her in with their purpose — which was

why, above her, a vault seemed more heavily to arch ; so that she

sat there in the solid chamber of her helplessness as in a bath of

benevolence artfully prepared for her.” (II U3-UU) Later she imag¬

ines the Prince’s asking, “ where for it after all are we? up in a

balloon and whirling through space or down in the depths of the

earth, in the glimmering passages of a gold-mine?” (II 73) Their

passivity depresses Verver also, “as if we were sitting about on

divans, with pigtails, smoking opium and seeing visions.” (II 92)

Charlotte becomes a guide for sight-seers through the collection,

and Maggie reduces herself to the smallest dimensions, a micro¬

scopic insect pushing a grain of sand.

After buying the bowl and receiving the merchant, she confides

in Mrs. Assingham, who appropriately takes the decisive action of

dashing it to the floor where it breaks into three pieces, which

Maggie must rescue. At this point the Prince enters melodramati¬

cally, and Mrs. Assingham departs in a flourish of excuses which

border on high comedy. “It has since occurred to me that his

[James’] novels are really remarkable for their lack of humour.”17

Perhaps not very oddly the man who satirized Victorians failed to

detect that James’ censure of those who substitute manners for

feeling exceeds his annoyance with those who ignore conventions.

Frequently, as here, he reduces them to a mechanical, and conse¬

quently ridiculous, reliance on superficial codes. This scene, like a

number of others, indicates that too much solemnity has been read

into James. One feels the pathos in the husband’s and wife’s em¬

barrassment, but Mrs. Assingham’s inadequate apologies preserve

a sardonic tone. “Bedizend and jewelled, in her rustling finery,”

(II 182) for, like Catherine Sloper’s, her gowns with a placid life

have grown increasingly gaudy, Maggie at last becomes superior;

“it was her companion absolutely who was at sea.” (II 203) Curi¬

ously enough, in spite of all her suffering, she remembers a phrase

17 Virginia Woolf & Lytton Strachey. Letters, edd. Leonard Woolf & James Strachey

(New York. 1956), p. 27.

1958]

Enck — The Golden Boivl

235

from the United States; “she was having, by that idiom, the time

of her life. ... It was as if she had come out — that was her most

general consciousness ; out of a dark tunnel, a dense wood, or even

simply a smoky room.” (II 207) Nevertheless, she remains in the

plot quite rooted, and the pagoda around which she stalks is re¬

placed by Charlotte, whom she depicts there as a wild animal. If,

however, the images in which she had fancied herself during her

perplexity stemmed from those of museums and being immured,

she now braves new frontiers, like the Northwest Passage of mar¬

riage or the alkali desert of cheap divorce. She compares herself

with the Holman Hunt painting of “the scapegoat of old . . . charged

with the sins of the people .... gone forth into the desert to sink

under his burden and die.” (II 23U) The smoking room suggests “a

wild eastern caravan, looming into view with crude colours in the

sun, fierce pipes in the air, high spears against the sky, all a thrill,

a natural joy to mingle with, but turning off short before it reached

her and plunging into other defiles.” (II 237) Although facing

dangers, she has returned to her element.

When she initially confronts her father with plans for his leav¬

ing — the figures the more common ones of ocean travel, she weath¬

ering the storm better than he — her announced intention is to ship

him back to his American City. She can contemplate him almost

with detachment in his accustomed environment, “the typical

charmed gazer, in the still museum, before the named and dated

object, the pride of the catalogue, that time has polished and conse¬

crated.” (II 27 J)) She it is who holds the Baedeker. Charlotte, in

turn, before Maggie’s rising assurance, already appears to retreat

across “long miles of ocean and the dreadful great country, State

after State.” (II 303-30 U) Charlotte’s actually confronting her stirs

“some echo of an ancient fable- — some vision of Io goaded by the

gadfly or of Ariadne roaming the lone sea-strand,” (II 307) as the

figurative merges with the literal, and the symbols resume their

initial alignments. The Prince must maintain his immobility

throughout the book. Maggie, her process of understanding com¬

pleted only by the end of the story, feels that he chafes under his

inactivity as much as she does. They agree, in her explanation,

“we’re doing nothing, we’re doing it in the most aggravated way.”

(II 325-326) Finally, then, Maggie indirectly persuades Verver to

return with Charlotte. After a last interview between the two fami¬

lies, she looks to glimpse the departing coach which carries her

father and stepmother away, but it already has left. She and her

husband remain ; the novel closes with their embrace.

If, however, the images by resuming their properties comment

directly upon the story, the final effect does not produce a work

whole but hermetic. It transcends a series of episodes whose meshes

236 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

dangle an elaborate filigree of stylized thoughts. As much as any of

James’ novels, not excluding The Bostonians, The Golden Bowl de¬

picts weaknesses emerging in contemporary society. James and his

concerns stand less remote from the world than once they appeared

to. Verver, for example, represents a temperament that had not

existed when he published Roderick Hudson. In 1874 he reviewed

an exhibition of some thirty paintings at a Boston exhibition : to

range through his article for random comments :

Roughly considered, the coming of these works was certainly something

of an event, for the importation of authentic old masters by the dozen is

as yet, for the American public, an unfamiliar fashion. . . . We seemed

to find in it [the viewers’ conduct] a mild but irresistible pathos — and

we were reminded once more that we are a singularly good-natured peo¬

ple. We take what is given us, and we submit, with inexhaustible docility,

to being treated as children and simple persons. We are vast, rich, and

mighty, but where certain ideas are concerned we sit as helpless in the

presence of Old-World tradition, dim and ghostly though it may be, as

Hercules at the feet of Omphale. ... It has been proved that there is no

reason in the essence of things why a room full of old masters should not

be walked into from an American street and appear to proper advantage

in spite of what in harmonious phrase we suppose we should call its

location.15

Verver imports pieces for his museum by the score, and Amerigo’s

behavior verges on the dim and ghostly at times, precisely with

the connotations which James later attaches to these terms. The

rules which his protagonists formulate and test refer to social reali¬

ties which had developed in the later decades of the nineteenth cen¬

tury. In The Aspern Papers he had observed, “When Americans

went abroad in 1820 there was something romantic, almost heroic

in it, as compared with perpetual ferryings of the present hour, the

hour at which photography and other conveniences have annihi¬

lated surprise.” (4-9) If the Americans, with their newly founded or

enlarged museums and available transportation, had literally be¬

come “the heir of all the ages,” in the phrase he applies to Milly

Theale, he feared that the inheritance threatened them with deca¬

dence induced equally by excessive refinement or a crude ennui. A

sentiment further along in “Locksley Hall,” “Better fifty years of

Europe than a cycle of Cathay,” with minor modifications might

likewise describe his outlook. The uneasy pride in what western

society on both sides of the Atlantic had accomplished made him

anxious about its perpetuation.

The thirty years between the Boston exhibition and The Golden

Bowl represented the weakening of that culture through the very

values by which his fiction had lived. Just as metaphors about trav-

18 Henry James, The Painter’s Eye, ed. John L. Sweeney (Cambridge, 1956), pp.

79-87.

1958]

Enck — The Golden Bond

237

elers and museums touch on the wilderness and trash, so no char¬

acter in The Golden Bond, escapes exercising a capacity for malice.

The first interview between Maggie and the Prince establishes the

tone when she declares life pleasant in “The world, the beautiful

world — or everything in it that is beautiful. I mean we see so

much.” (/ 11) To which he answers, “You see too much . . . when

you don’t, at least . . . see too little.” (I 11) The remarks gain pre¬

cision as the novel expands. Maggie lacks discrimination by gushing

sincerely over authentic or jejune objects among which she num¬

bers the Prince and the bowl. Along with the other American hero¬

ines whom James portrays she too willingly accepts an easy prag¬

matic standard ; much implicit irony hinges on nuances of the verb

“see.” In her tourist’s attitude she shares traits with her father,

who applies “the same measure of value to such different pieces of

property as old Persian carpets, say, and new human acquaint¬

ances.” (/ 196) The two lead primarily materialistic lives, happy

expatriates, plutocrats in a superficial foreign atmosphere. Because

of their wealth they worry about the price of nothing and, there¬

fore, fail to grasp values. The Prince and Charlotte, in contrast,

must selfishly study the price of everything, and this information

at times sharpens at others distorts their values. The novel traces

how affections develop among four people in differing degrees, but

not kinds, of cynicism ; none, however, fills the role of outright vil¬

lain, conspiring with a codified evil. All need to learn to see essen¬

tial relationships. Colonel and Mrs. Assingham remain somewhat

unredeemed at the end, but their limitations render them basically

comic rather than wicked because they must fall back on existing

mores and cannot transcend them either for profit or generosity.

Unlike the tales of positive horror, The Turn of the Screw or The

Jolly Corner, The Golden Bowl draws all its virtues from society or

art, and evil is absence or deformity. A fine understanding depends

on seeing both the moment and its origins honestly in their full

connections.

The reason for undertaking to master such an outlook shares the

initial impulse behind travel and museums : caring enough about

others and culture. Here, again, James treats an abiding theme

described in Marianne Moore’s brilliant insight, “Love is the thing

more written about than anything else, and in the mistaken sense

of greed. Henry James seems to have been haunted by awareness

that rapacity destroys what it is successful in acquiring. He feels

a need To see the other side as well as his own, to feel what his

adversary feels.’ ”19 Maggie, most convincingly, expresses the emo¬

tion, a nearly existential faith in love.

10 Marianne Moore, Predilections (New York, 1955), p. 30.

238 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

“Because — don’t you see? — I am mild. I can bear anything.”

“Oh, ‘bear’!” Mrs. Assingham fluted.

“For love,” said the Princess.

Fanny hesitated. “Of your father?”

“For love,” Maggie repeated.

It kept her friend watching. “Of your husband?”

“For love,” Maggie said again. (II 115-116 )

Almost alone among James’ characters Maggie, and through her

the rest, surmounts victimizing others or suffering permanently

from their rapacity. Consequently, R. P. Blackmur, who otherwise

analyzes the novel persuasively, offers an exaggerated interpreta¬

tion of the end ; “as Maggie applied it [her mode of love] , it re¬

quired the sacrifice of life itself till nothing but the created shade

was left.”20 The novel concludes on the lines, “he [Amerigo] pres¬

ently echoed: ‘ “See”? I see nothing but you.’ And the truth of it

had with this force after a moment so strangely lighted his eyes

that as for pity and dread of them she buried her own in his breast.”

(II 369) Maggie has fully braved the tragic implications of his and

her suffering, “pity and dread.” Her sacrifices through sensibility

may now create not a shade but life. The Prince can “see” here,

whereas she has passed beyond surveying hastily a beautiful world.

Just before this scene the Principino enters in his own right, and

he “abounded, as usual, in remarks worthy of the familv archives.”

(II 367)

Because Maggie endures so much she may suggest a divine char¬

ity, bordering agape. From this hint the universe opens for mythic

interpretations, especially some based on the senior Henry James’

brooding about Swedenborg.21 One contrast between father and son

may indicate how perversely this view looks at The Golden Bond

upside down. In 1842 Henry James wrote to Emerson, “I am led,

quite without any conscious wilfulness either, to seek the laws of

these appearances that swim round us in God’s great museum.22

The irrational streak forming the core of much mysticism proved

ultimately as congenial to the elder James as to Emerson. An

impossible question has been phrased in a way to predict the sure

answer. The Golden Borvl employs a different criterion. Everyone

analyzes possibilities to become aware of what questions he dare

ask of whom ; even the Assinghams recognize this point, if they

never quite discover how to frame proper phrases. Moreover, once

20 R. P. Blackmur, introduction to The Golden Bowl (New York, 195 2), p. xx.

21 Quentin Anderson advances the view in The American Henry James. The title does

not, but well might, signify a reading of the late novels as an allegorical melting pot.

His opinions form points of departure for two articles : Caroline Gordon, “Mr. Verver,

Our National Hero,” Sewanee Revieio, LXIII (Winter, 1955), pp. 29-47 and Francis

Fergusson, “The Golden Bowl Revisited,” Seivanee Review, LXIII (Winter, 1955),

pp. 13-28. A more temperate stress on religion occurs in Frederick C. Crews, The

Tragedy of Manners (New Haven, 1957), pp. 105-112.

23 Letter quoted by F. O. Matthiessen, The James Family (New York, 1948), p. 41.

1958]

Enck — The Golden Bowl

289

the mystic grasps the law, which his question has guaranteed, it,

obviously, explains phenomena, or explains them away. In all his

novels James mocked anyone relying glibly on universals or his own

private whims. Finally, the pietistic phrase which equates the

world with god’s museum has nothing to do with Verver’s Ameri¬

can City or the collection destined for it. James, always searching

for donnees, worked cautiusly toward generalizations but not abso¬

lutes. To impose a static paradigm denies the spontaneity on which

half the structure of the novel depends. “Does it enrich our appre¬

hension of the later novels of Henry James if we construe them as

Swedenborgian allegories? . . . the purported symbolism is not con¬

ventional nor explicit nor implicit; it is, at best, conjectural; and

since it obscures rather more than it illuminates, it should prob¬

ably be discarded as inadmissible.”23

Finally, to schematize the images into a codified myth violates

every page of The Golden Bond. Its wholeness consists, ultimately,

in a partial wholeness, in seeing things as they exist, evaluating

them, and, then, accepting or transforming them for their moment

but not eternity. By his early review James detected nothing essen¬

tially absurd in the prediction of galleries on any American street.

With this novel the eclectic nature of travel and museums repre¬

sents an ultimate danger by fragmentation without losing their

eminence on the heights of civilization. He further dramatizes this

impression when Miss Mumby confronts the expatriate Graham in

The Ivory Tower, whose setting is Newport. She affects him “in

the supreme degree as a vessel of the American want of corre¬

spondence. Miss Mumby was ample, genial, familiar and more

radiantly clean than he had ever known any vessel, to whatever

purpose destined ; also the number of things she took for granted —

if it was a question of that, or perhaps rather the number of things

of which she didn’t doubt and was incapable of doubting, sur¬

rounded her together with a kind of dazzling aura, a special radi¬

ance of disconnection.” (78) A cultural historian, who delighted in

dramatic contrasts which James would never have risked, later hit

on the bizarre extremes unavailable before World War I : “Es

werden durch Rundfunk bereits Nachtigallenkonzerte und Papst-

reden ubertragen. Das ist der Enter gang des Abendlandes .”24 No¬

where else in fiction does the mind’s deliberately using the diverse

materials at hand, and no others, to gain wisdom range so minutely

and conscientiously, balancing for its final triumph spontaneous

surprise (travel), understanding (sight), culture (the museum),

and a continuing love.

23 Harry Levin, Contexts of Criticism (Cambridge, 1957), p. 206.

24 Egon Friedell, Kulturgeschiclite der Neuzeit, 3 vols. (Mlinchen, 1928-1931), III,

p. 569.

240 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

“The business of cultivating continuity” (// 80) provides The

Golden Bowl its diametric qualities, which come out wholes.

Although a novel, and therefore telling a story which moves through

time, it scarcely progresses but hovers about the intricate convolu¬

tions of two uncommonly candid temperaments. The thoughts sel¬

dom seek the pretensions of philosophizing but adhere to actuali¬

ties, and any deeds matter less than the myriad sensations which

lead to choices. Images arise directly from the material and link

together in an integrated pattern which forms an independent com¬

mentary. The subjects in both kinds of metaphors strain away from

a vital sequence toward the static museum or the rootless traveler ;

the story itself pulls them back into their properly adjoining

spheres. For all their wealth the characters belong to the society

which had evolved during James’ lifetime; they exhibit a few tend¬

encies so exhaustively that they now look almost like allegories on

traits just emerging before World War I. This very mixed world

produces Maggie, who shrinks from no ramifications of disaster

and redeems the rest, not — it must be added — without their partial

assistance. The reader, consequently, has to share her generosity in

allowing, indeed prizing, the weaknesses of the others. Finally, the

theme depicts threats of fragmentation ; its chief, and most obvi¬

ous, symbol, the bowl itself, has a flaw and breaks. Nevertheless,

the novel, as a work of art, overcomes the maladies it investigates ;

it endures in the conditions set down by James as the preface to

The Portrait of a Lady. “Here we get exactly the high price of the

novel as a literary form — its power not only, while preserving that

form with closeness, to range through all the differences of the indi¬

vidual relation to its general subject-matter, all the varieties of

outlook on life, of disposition to reflect and project, created by con¬

ditions that are never the same from man to man (or, so far as that

goes, from man to woman), but positively to appear more true to

its character in proportion as it strains, or tends to burst, with a

latent extravagance, its mould.” (I x) Charlotte’s public comment,

wrenched from context and altered in tone, on a piece in the Verver

collection well sums up the effects of these strains in The Golderi

Boivl: “really quite unique — so that though the whole thing is a

little baroque — its value .... is I believe almost inestimable.”

(II 291)

ARCHBISHOP LAUD AND SHIRLEY’S THE CARDINAL

Charles R. Forker

University of Wisconsin, Madison

Sir Henry Herbert licensed The Cardinal for production at the

Blackfriars theatre on November 25, 1641, 1 and all evidence points

to the summer or early fall of the same year as the period of its

composition. The political events of the time were so inauspicious

for the theatrical profession that it is not surprising to find even

the chief playwright of the King’s Men murmuring about hard con¬

ditions.2 Yet the topical significance of Shirley’s greatest tragedy

has never been seriously examined.3

The crisis which a year later closed the theatres until the Res¬

toration was already gathering head in 1641. 4 The rift between

King Charles and his subjects was widening every week, and po¬

litical and religious tensions were hurrying the nation headlong

into civil war. The Long Parliament had met and was in stormy

session; as Pyrn’s power increased in the House of Commons, the

nation witnessed the trial and execution of Strafford, Lord Lieu¬

tenant of Ireland, on the charge that he had treasonably planned to

subdue his own countrymen with an army of Irish Catholics. Laud,

too, was impeached and sent to the Tower under a long list of

charges — among them that he had deliberately betrayed England

into the Scottish war and, by negotiating secretly with the pope,

had planned to subvert the whole Protestant cause in Britain. The

hated courts of High Commission and Star Chamber were abol¬

ished, and the “Root-and-branch” party, whose sentiments were

hysterically voiced in Milton’s “Apology for Smectymnuus,” fulmi¬

nated for the abolition of the episcopal hierarchy. During part of

the year Scottish troops occupied the northern counties of England,

1 J. Q. Adams ed., The Dramatic Records of Sir Henry Herbert (New Haven, 1917),

p. 39.

2 In the epilogue to The Cardinal Shirley refers to “the unhappy stage," anticipating

his more desperate complaint six months later in the prologue to The Sisters that a

play, “Though ne’er so new, will starve the second day.” For The Cardinal I cite C. R.

Forker, “The Cardinal by James Shirley, A Critical Edition with Introduction, Notes,

and a Modernized Text,” unpubl. thesis (Harvard, 1957) ; otherwise I quote from

William Gifford ed., The Dramatic Works and Poems of James Shirley, 6 vols. (Lon¬

don, 1833) — hereafter cited as Works.

3 Former editors of The Cardinal, chiefly Gifford, have noted an allusion here and

there, and F. S. Boas in An Introduction to Stuart Drama (London, 1946), p. 376,

suggests the applicability of a single passage to Laud; but no one has attached much

importance to these hints. Tucker Brooke’s view that the play was “doubtless . . .

suggested by the contemporary career of Richelieu in France” (A Literary History of

England, ed. A. C. Baugh [New York, 1948], p. 586) is usual.

4 For the political background I rely heavily on S. R. Gardiner, The Fall of the

Monarchy of Charles I 1637-1639, 2 vols. (London, 1882).

241

242 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

a humiliating reminder of the late war; the king himself made a

state journey to Edinburgh where he was nearly reduced to beg¬

ging for the funds which his own parliament at home would not

vote him. The year was climaxed in October by the dramatic out¬

break of the Irish Rebellion. The Grand Remonstrance (read No¬

vember 22, just three days before Herbert licensed Shirley’s play)

followed hard upon — a rancorous summation of the nation’s griev¬

ances against the policies of the entire reign. It complained of the

abuse of royal prerogative, incursions on Commons’ privileges, the

imposition of unparliamentary taxation such as “ship money,” the

licensing of corporate monopolies, the dissolution of parliaments,

the tyranny of the ecclesiastical courts, the disastrous attempt to

force the Anglican liturgy upon Scotland, the frustrating of the

Reformation (as symbolized by Laud’s insistence on Arminian uni¬

formity) , and, by implication at least, the failure of the Crown to

strike a single decisive blow for the cause of continental Protestant¬

ism. The bad situation was in no wise improved by the unreasoning

fear of Roman Catholic subversion which gripped the nation like

plague — a fear which Queen Henrietta and her suite of foreign

clerics and Catholic converts had encouraged by their indiscretions.

It would be strange indeed if a playwright like Shirley, a man

close to the court yet dependent upon public support, who had been

attached to Strafford’s household in Ireland, who had written a play

on a plot supplied by the king,5 yet who, on another occasion, fell

afoul of the censor, whose works probably had to be passed upon

by some vigilant member of the church authority, if not Laud him¬

self — it would be strange if such a writer could entirely exclude

from a new play all evidences of the national crisis. The Cardinal

is, in fact, full of references which almost beg to be read as Shir¬

ley’s oblique commentary on the contemporary situation.

The man who became the scapegoat for almost every popular

grievance in the kingdom was Charles I’s choleric, single-minded,

donnish, and immensely powerful little Archbishop of Canterbury,

William Laud. Even more than Strafford, whose rise to power he

had materially influenced, Laud symbolized to the popular imagina¬

tion the evil genius behind the throne, the wicked counselor who,

by his autocratic policies, both secular and ecclesiastical, was alien¬

ating the king from his people, subverting law, religion, and justice,

and plotting with Jesuitical cunning to betray his church and his

government to the scarlet woman of Rome.

Laud’s unpopularity was by no means confined to the Puritans,

for he was hated alike by many of the nobility, to whom he repre-

6 The Gamester. See Adams, Herbert, p. 54.

1958] Forker — Archbishop Laud and “ The Cardinal”

243

sented the alarming resurgence of ecclesiastical power, and by

Roman Catholics, who feared his repressive measures. The Puritans,

who, at the height of his power, had rioted at Lambeth, smashed

altar rails, and put up libelous placards, rejoiced incontinently at

the archibishop’s imprisonment, and 1641 saw a profusion of

satirical pamphlets against the prelate,6 several of them comparing

him unfavorably to Wolsey and Richelieu. When it was later dis¬

covered from Laud’s diary that he had actually twice been offered

a cardinal’s hat, the fact that he had loyally refused did little to

dispel the fantasy which had been growing stronger every day in

the minds of his enemies.

Read against this background, certain passages in The Cardinal

take on a new significance. The most unmistakable of these occurs

at the end of Act II where Rosaura and the cardinal have a con¬

frontation in which she accuses him in terms which strongly sug¬

gest the popular notion of Laud :

Duchess. Would all your actions had no falser lights

About ’em.

Cardinal. Ha!

Duchess. The people would not talk and curse so loud.

Cardinal. I’ll have you chid into a blush for this.

Duchess. Begin at home, great man; there’s cause enough.

You turn the wrong end of the perspective

Upon your crimes to drive them to a far

And lesser sight; but let your eyes look right,

What giants would your pride and surfeit seem !

How gross your avarice, eating up whole families!

How vast are your corruptions and abuse

Of the king’s ear, at which you hang a pendant,

Not to adorn, but ulcerate, while the honest

Nobility, like pictures in the arras,

Serve only for court ornament. If they speak,

’Tis when you set their tongues, which you wind up

Like clocks to strike at the just hour you please.

Leave, leave, my lord, these usurpations,

And be what you were meant — a man to cure,

Not let in, agues to religion.

Look on the church’s wounds.

Cardinal. You dare presume,

In your rude spleen to me, to abuse the church?

Duchess. Alas, you give false aim, my lord. ’Tis your

Ambition and scarlet sins that rob

Her altar of the glory and leave wounds

Upon her brow, which fetches grief and paleness

Into her cheeks, making her troubled bosom

Pant with her groans and shroud her holy blushes

Within your reverend purples.

9 For a partial list of these pamphlets see J. P. Lawson, The Life and Times of

William Laud (London, 1829), II, 404-06.

244 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

Cardinal. Will you now take breath?

Duchess. In hope, my lord, you will behold yourself

In a true glass, and see those in just acts

That so deform you, and by timely cure

Prevent a shame before the short-haired men

Do crowd and call for justice.

(II. iii. 135-68)

It is interesting to set against this passage a few excerpts from

speeches by “the short-haired men” themselves — the parliamentary

leaders accusing Laud of treason. Harbotle Grimston on Decem¬

ber 18, 1640 opened his address to the House with the following

words :

. . . we are now fallen upon the great Man the Arch-Bishop of Can¬

terbury; look upon him as he is in Highness, and he is the Sty of all Pesti¬

lential filth, that hath infested the State and Government of this Com¬

monwealth: Look upon him in his dependencies, and he is the only Man,

the only Man that hath raised and advanced all those, that together with

himself, have been the Authors and Causers of all our Ruines, Miseries,

and Calamities we now groan under. Who is it but he only that hath

brought the Earl of Strafford to all his great places and imployments?

A fit Spirit and Instrument to act and execute all his wicked and bloody

designs in these Kingdoms. Who is it but he only that brought in Secre¬

tary Windebank 7 into this place of Service, of Trust, the very Broker and

Pandar to the Whore of Babylon ?

Who is it, Mr. Speaker, but he only, that hath advanced all our Popish

Bishops?8

Grimston goes on to charge Laud with having “sate at the Helm,

to steer, and manage all the Projects that have been set on foot in

this Kingdom this Ten years last past,” of having licensed such

monopolies as that on tobacco, “whereby Thousands of poor people

have been stript, and turned out of their Trades,” and concludes

with the statement that “he hath been the great and Common

Enemy of all Goodness, and Good men ; and it is not safe that such

a Viper should be near His Majesty’s Person, to distil his Poyson

into His Sacred Ears.”9

Pym in his speech of February 26, 1640/41, detailing fourteen

formal charges against the archbishop, censured him for “Pride

without any Moderation ; such a Pride as that is which exalts it self

above all that is called God : Malice without any Provocation ; Malice

against Vertue, against Innocence, against Piety; Injustice, with¬

out any Means of Restitution, even such Injustice as doth rob the

present Times of their Possessions, the future of their Possi¬

bilities.”10

7 Sir Francis Windebank, Secretary of State, was discovered to have signed letters

of grace for Roman priests and Jesuits, and rather than face his accusers fled to the

continent on December 10, 1640.

8 John Rushworth, Historical Collections, Part III (London, 1692), L 122.

I, 122.

v>ll>id., I, 199,

1958J Forker — Archbishop Laud and “ The Cardinal” 245

The popular comparison of Laud to Wolsey, which recurs in the

propaganda of the day,11 is especially interesting here, since the epi¬

sode from The Cardinal quoted above bears a certain resemblance

to scenes in Shakespeare’s Henry VIII,12 and indeed, it is quite

possible that Shakespeare’s churchman served as one of the models

for Shirley’s title character. There is heavy emphasis on the cardi¬

nal’s pride and power in the later play, on his “surfeit” and “ava¬

rice,” and it is hardly to be wondered at if Laud’s rise from humble

origin, his habit of going abroad with forty or fifty mounted attend¬

ants and ushers crying “roome roome for my Lords grace. Gentle¬

men be vncouered my Lords grace is comming,”13 and his spec¬

tacular fall recalled that dramatic revolution of Fortune’s wheel

which Cavendish had moralized in his Life and Death of Thomas

Wolsey;11 indeed, Cavendish’s book, though well known in manu¬

script, appears to have first reached print in 1641 under the title

The Negotiations of Thomas Wolsey, its text badly garbled and dis¬

torted with an explicit parallel to Laud tacked on the end. The fall

from great height is certainly suggested by Antonio’s speech in

Act V :

I would this soldier had the cardinal

Upon a promontory. With what a spring

The churchman would leap down! It were a spectacle

Most rare to see him topple from the precipice

And souse in the salt water with a noise

To stun the fishes; and if he fell into

A net, what wonder would the simple sea gulls

Have to draw up the o’ergrown lobster,

So ready boiled!

(V.ii. 107-15)

Shirley draws the proper moral when the dying cardinal is made

to say to the king :

11 See especially the following pamphlets: John Browne, A Discovery Of the Noto¬

rious Proceedings of William Lavd . . . in bringing Innovations into the Church . . .

(London, 1641) ; Canterburies Dream in which the Apparitition of Cardmall Wolsey

did present himself unto him . . . (London, 1641) ; Archy’s Dream, sometimes Jester

to his Majesty: With a relation for whom an odd Chair stood void in Hell (London,

1641) ; The Recantation of the Prelate of Canterbury Being his last advice to his

Brethren the Bishops of England (London, 1641), p. 22 ; A True Description, Or Rather

a Parallel between Cardinall Wolsey . . . and William Laud . . . (London, 1641).

See also Paul L. Wiley’s excellent “Renaissance Exploitation of Cavendish’s Life of

Wolsey," SP, XLIII (1946), 139-40.

12 r. S. Forsythe in The Relations of Shirley’s Plays to the Elizabethan Dixima (New

York, 1914), p. 187, notes the parallel between the “accusations and recriminations”

of Rosaura and the cardinal ( The Cardinal Il.iii) and those of Queen Katherine and

Cardinal Wolsey in Henry VIII (Il.iv and Ill.i).

13 John Bastwick, The Letany (London, 1637), p. 6. Thomas Fuller ( Church His¬

tory of Britain, ed. J. S. Brewer [Oxford, 1845], VI, 301) contrasts Wolsey’s love of

silks and satins with Laud’s customarily plain dress, but the comparison, in itself, is

suggestive.

u Compare also the anti-Laudian satire. Fortune’s Tennis-ball Or, A Proviso for all

those that are elevated, to take heed of Falling, for Fortune spights more the mightie

then the poore (London, 1640).

246 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

I have deserved you should turn from me, sir.

My life hath been prodigiously wicked.

My blood is now the kingdom’s balm. 0, sir,

I have abused your ear, your trust, your people,

And my own sacred office; my conscience

Feels now the sting.

(V.iii. 198-203)

The last words of the play strike the same note :

How much are kings abused by those they take

To royal grace, whom, when they cherish most

By nice indulgence, they do often arm

Against themselves; from whence this maxim springs:

None have more need of perspectives than kings.

(V.iii. 295-99)

It would, of course, be absurd to suggest that Shirley’s play rep¬

resents a consistent political allegory, but these topical overtones

seem to extend farther. The king in the play is represented as vacil¬

lating and weakly dominated by the cardinal, yet the portrait is of

a monarch, well meaning but misguided, and no opportunity to

approve of the Stuart theory of divine right is let pass. Among the

dominant traits in the cardinal’s character, as Shirley delineates

him, are deviousness, hypocrisy, and ambition, qualities which

Laud’s enemies were ever ready to attribute to him. Antonio at one

point says of the cardinal, “He carries angels in his tongue and

face, but I / Suspect his heart” ( V.ii. 89-90) , and in the exposition

of the tragedy, where the audience is informed of the military situa¬

tion, we find the following dialogue :

Alphonso. The Aragonians,

Violating their confederate oath and league,

Are now in arms. They have not yet marched towards us,

But ’tis not safe to expect if we may timely

Prevent invasion.

2. Lord. Dare they be so insolent?

1. Lord. This storm I did foresee.

2. Lord. What have they but the sweetness of the king

To make a crime?

1. Lord. But how appears the cardinal

At this news?

Alphonso. Not pale, although

He knows they have no cause to think him innocent,

As by whose counsel they were once surprised.

1. Lord. There is more

Than all our present art can fathom in

This story, and I fear I may conclude

This flame has breath at home to cherish it.

There’s treason in some hearts whose faces are

Smooth to the state.

(I. i. 57-73)

1958] Forker — Archbishop Laud and “The Cardinal ”

247

Shirley never follows up this hint of the cardinal’s treason in the

war, and it is obviously meant primarily as a stroke of characteri¬

zation. But when one remembers that Laud had been accused the

same year the play was produced of confederating with “Priests

and Jesuits,’’ of striving to make “an Ecclesiastical Division of Re¬

ligious Difference between us and Foreign Nations,” just as he

“hath sought to make a Civil Difference between us and his Maj¬

esty’s Subjects of the Kingdom of Scotland ,”15 and when the alarm¬

ing situation in Ireland could be thought of as merely the result of

a diabolical foreign policy which Laud had sponsored, the political

suggestions of this dialogue seem hard to resist. “Not pale” might

even be taken by an astute audience for an allusion to Laud’s com¬

plexion, which was notably rubicund,16 but if this idea seems too

fanciful, one may at least admit the general applicability to the

archibishop of an exchange like the following :

1. Lord. Take heed; the cardinal holds intelligence

With every bird i’ th’ air.

2. Lord. Death on his purple pride!

He governs all.

(I.i.20-22)

One could go carefully through the play pointing out trait by

trait parallels between Shirley’s characterization of the cardinal

and the popular conception of Laud by his enemies — the deceit,

cruelty, anger, ambition, hypocrisy, craft, and even lust17 — but it is

sufficient here merely to note the analogy in general terms, for it is

hardly likely that anything else was intended by the author. That

an audience at the Blackfriars might expect such topical sugges¬

tions is, however, sufficiently clear from Shirley’s prologue, which

literally alerts the house to “keep your fancy active till you know,

/ By th’ progress of our play” that the reference is not to France,

that is, to Richelieu. This deliberately mysterious tone about the

play’s subject matter accomplishes a double purpose — it invites a

political interpretation at the same time protecting the poet, by its

noncommittal pose, from any clear charge of libel :

A poet’s art is to lead on your thought

Through subtle paths and workings of a plot,

And where your expectation does not thrive,

If things fall better, yet you may forgive.

I will say nothing positive; you may

Think what you please. We call it but a play.

( Prologue , 7-12)

16 Rushworth, I, 201.

w See Peter Heylyn, Cyprianus Anglicvs (London, 1671), p. 507.

17 Laud’s arch-enemy, William Prynne, puts this uncharitable construction upon two

of the archbishop’s prayers (A Breviate Of The Life of William Laud [London, 1644],

pp. 29-30).

248 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

Since the comic epilogue seems to modern taste so inappropriate,

one is tempted to suggest that the motive of disguise may lie be¬

hind it as well, for it is certainly free of political references.

The danger entailed by unflattering allusions to Anglican policy

of the time is illustrated by a Puritan account of an incident that

occurred in another London theatre :

In the meane time let me tell ye a lamentable Tragedie, acted by the

Prelacie, against the poore Players of the Fortune Play-house, which made

them sing Fortune my foe why dust thou frowne on me? &c. for having

gotten a new old Play, called The Cardinalls Conspiracie, whom they

brought upon the Stage in as great state as they could, with Altars,

Images, Crosses, Crucifixes, and the like, to set forth his pomp and pride.

But wofull was the sight to see, how in the middest of all their mirth,

the Puesevants came and seazed upon the poore Cardinall, and all his

Consorts, and carried them away. And when they were questioned for it,

in the high Commission Court, the[y] pleaded Ignorance, and told the

Archbishop, that they tooke those examples of their Altars, Images, and

the like, from Heathen Authors. This did somewhat asswage his anger,

that they did not bring him on the Stage: but yet they were fined for it,

and after a little imprisonment got their liberty.18

Such an incident indicates that Laud himself would have been

quick to smell a rat at any critically unfavorable representation of a

cardinal, and Shirley would probably not have dared bring forth

his play if the archbishop had not been safely in prison and the

High Commission by this time a matter of history.

The reading of political significance into a work of art is suffi¬

ciently out of fashion nowadays to make one cautious. In any event,

the theory promulgated above needs more to support it than the

mere illustration of similarities between an unpopular cleric and

the arch-villain of a revenge tragedy. Shirley was no Puritan, and,

as a loyal Royalist who was later to fight for his sovereign in the

civil war, he would certainly have had few kind words for men of

Pym’s or Grimston’s color.19 Besides, the popular portrait of Laud

which the above details of The Cardinal suggest was a radical dis¬

tortion of the truth which anyone of Shirley’s apparently sanguine

temper and informed status might be supposed to reject out of

hand. How likely is it, then, that Shirley would feel so strongly

about Laud, or, supposing that he did, would undergo the consider¬

able risk of expressing his sentiments on the stage ? What, in brief,

could be the motive behind these covert allusions?

To begin with, we know that during this period playwrights

found it so difficult to repress comment on current affairs in their

plays and that the court was sufficiently sensitive on this score

18 Quoted from A Second Discovery by the Northern Scout (1642) in Leslie Hotson,

The Commonwealth and Restoration Stage (Cambridge, Mass., 1928), pp. 3-4.

19 See Shirley’s ridicule of the Puritan Prynne in his dedication of The Bird in a

Cage ( Works II, 367-69).

1958] Forker — Archbishop Laud and “The Cardinal ”

249

that censorship grew increasingly severe. Shirley himself seems

narrowly to have escaped official reprimand (or worse) for his com¬

edy, The Ball (1632), in which, wrote Herbert, “ther were divers

personated so naturally, both of lords and others of the court, that

I took it ill, and would have forbidden the play, but that [Beeston,

the manager] promiste many things which I found faulte withall

should be left out, and that he would not suffer it to be done by the

poett any more, who deserves to be punisht.”20 If this were not

enough evidence of it, there is further testimony of Shirley’s inde¬

pendence of mind in his dedication of The Maid's Revenge, where

he boasts that he “never affected the ways of flattery,”21 and in the

prologue to The Brothers, where he satirizes the strictness of the

censorship laws :

He [the poet] says the times are dangerous; who knows

What treason may be wrapt in giant prose,

Or swelling verse, at least to sense? Nay, then,

Have at you, master Poet. . . .a

Again in the prologue to The Example (1634) Shirley complains

about the unreasonableness of the curbs on the writer’s freedom

which now more than ever before “fright the cause / Of unbe¬

friended Poesy,” adding a contemptuous reference to those “that

wear the purple clothes, / Robes, I should say.”23

Contemporary allusion must have been a box-office temptation,

and when one remembers the unprecedented success of Middleton’s

A Game of Chess (1624), a play rejoicing over the failure of the

plan for a Spanish marriage, it is not difficult to see why Fletcher,

Massinger, and Shirley all succumbed to it at various times despite

the risk.24 For Shirley, writing in 1641, when plague and Puritan

pressures were making the theatrical profession most insecure, the

enticement must have been even greater. What, moreover, would

pacify the Puritans so well and yet remain so palatable and enter¬

taining to the large non-Puritan audience as a play implicitly

attacking Laud? His fall from power was still news, he was await¬

ing trial in the Tower, and he must have symbolized to Shirley and

the whole theatrical profession that detested Court of High Com¬

mission whose restrictive policy had pinched before, causing poets

to “suffer for their guilt of truth and arts.”25 Also with this court

“Adams, Herbert, p. 19. Shirley redeemed himself the following- year, for Herbert

commended The Young Admiral for its "beneficial and cleanly way of poetry” (Adams,

p. 19).

2> Works I, 101.

22 Works I. 191.

22 Works III, 282.

24 For a famous passage by Massinger which annoyed King Charles himself be¬

cause of its allusion to royal methods of exacting revenue, see G. E. Bentley, The

Jacobean and Caroline Stage, I (Oxford, 1941), 61.

“Prologue to The Example ( Works III, 282).

250 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

abolished and its chief inquisitor safely behind bars, the risk of

offending higher powers must have seemed considerably less.

It is entirely possible, however, that motives more personal than

these lie behind Shirley’s hostile glances at Laud in The Cardinal.

Though Shirley’s Roman Catholicism has never been conclusively

proved, it has generally been assumed from Anthony a Wood’s

statement about his conversion in Athenae Oxonienses ,2Q and Laud’s

policy toward recusants, particularly towards the end of his pri¬

macy, must have fanned the flames of outrage anew.27 Moreover,

Shirley, as “one of the Valets of the Chamber of Queen Henrietta

Maria’’ and a “Servant to Her Majesty,”28 must have felt an attach¬

ment to the very element at court which had all along been most

hostile to Laud. Furthermore, Shirley had been in Ireland where,

as a Catholic, he must have been impressed by the onerous burdens

imposed upon the natives in order to maintain what, to them, was

an unwanted and heretical church.

But if Wood’s account of the poet is to be believed (and modern

research has tended to confirm the general accuracy of his state¬

ments), Shirley and Laud had known each other personally at St.

John’s, Oxford, during the latter’s tenure as president of that col¬

lege. He records the following anecdote :

At the same time Dr. Will. Laud presiding that house, he had a very-

great affection for him [Shirley], especially for the pregnant parts that

were visible in him, but then having a broad or large mole upon his left

cheek, which some esteemed a deformity, that worthy doctor would often

tell him that he was an unfit person to take the sacred function upon him,

and should never have his consent so to do.5®

The story is quaint enough, and yet two of the extant portraits of

Shirley show the mole,30 and we find in Chabot (a play by Chapman

revised by Shirley31) a passage which sounds suspiciously autobio¬

graphical on the subject of moles.32 Shirley left Oxford for Cam¬

bridge, eventually entering the Anglican priesthood despite Laud’s

26 Ed. Philip Bliss, III (London, 1817), 737.

27 As the charges of Laud’s popery grew louder, he began to crack down on Catholics

with new zeal, and in 1640 he introduced a canon “For supressing of the growth of

popery’’ (see Laud’s Works [Oxford, 1853] V, 616-20). It is interesting to note that

the law was particularly harsh on schoolmasters in the houses of recusants, and since

Shirley had once been a schoolmaster himself at St. Albans, a post which he may have

had to resign because of his conversion to the Roman Church, lie could well have

felt strongly on the issue.

28 See Bentley, Jacobean and Caroline Stage, V, 1069.

29 Athenae Oxonienses, III, 737.

31 These portraits are reproduced in A. H. Nason, James Shirley, Dramatist, A Bio¬

graphical and Critical Study (New York, 1915), pp. 139, 151.

41 For the relation of this play to contemporary affairs see N. D. Solve, Stuart

Politics in Chapman’s ‘Tragedy of Chabot’ (Ann Arbor, 1928).

33 Here the garrulously comic Advocate, a Polonian figure, is made to exclaim of

the defendant, “branded, marked, and designed in his birth for shame and obloquy,

which appeareth further, by a mole under his right ear, with only three witch’s hairs

in’t ; strange and ominious [sic] predictions of nature” (V.ii [ Works VI, 153-54]).

1958] Forker — Archbishop Laud and “ The Cardinal”

251

advice,33 and there remains at least the possibility of a personal

animosity, though Wood gives no hint of it.

But these speculations, though entertaining, shed but little light

on the issue, and if Shirley intended The Cardinal to refer to the

fallen archbishop, simple anticlericalism and the chance for a bet¬

ter financial return would be motive enough. Yet it is difficult to re¬

sist the delicious irony of the strategy which they imply — a Catholic

playwright tapping anti-Catholic sentiment in his audience to

attack the enemy of recusants — and for a profit! Puritans and

Catholics make strange bedfellows, but this is precisely the kind of

ingeniousness which characterizes Shirley’s dramatic plots in gen¬

eral and that of The Cardinal in particular.

33 By nature Laud was inclined to be superstitious and may have felt that the mole

had some occult or supernatural importance. He would seem, however, to have been

contravening- one of the ancient “Canons Apostolical” of the primitive church

(LXXVII) which implies that physical deformity is not ordinarily to constitute an

impediment to receiving holy orders : “If any one who is otherwise worthy of the

Episcopate be blind of an eye, or lame of a leg, let him be made [Bishop] ; for it is

not a blemish of the body, but a pollution of the soul, that defiles a man” ( Index

Canonum, ed. John Fulton [New York, 1883], p. 105). On the other hand Laud may

have invoked the Old Testament qualifications for priesthood here or some later canon

based upon them : "For whatsoever man he he that hath a blemish, he shall not

approach: a blind man, or a lame, or he that hath a flat nose, or any thing superfluous,

Or a man that is brokenfooted, or brokenhanded. Or crookbackt, or a dwarf, or that

hath a blemish in his eye, or be scurvy, or scabbed, or hath his stones broken ; No

man that hath a blemish of the seed of Aaron the priest shall come nigh to offer the

offerings of the Lord made by fire : he hath a blemish ; he shall not come nigh to

offer the bread of his God” (Lev. 21:18-21). The Roman Church today will not or¬

dain a man “who is so visibly deformed that his appearance causes disgust, or laughter,

or great surprise to the faithful.” Canon 984 of the modern Code (1917) refers to

“those who have no nose, or lips, or who have an ugly cancer on the face,” but the

judgment as to wiiether a physical defect “amounts to an irregularity or not rests

with the Ordinai-y of the candidate who wishes to receive orders.” See T. L. Baus-

caren and A. C. Ellis, Canon Law, A Text and Commentary (Milwaukee, 1946), p. 375.

A COMPARISON OF QUINTUS FIXLEIN AND

SARTOR RESARTUS

Berenice Cooper

Wisconsin State College , Superior

It is logical to suppose that Carlyle may have been influenced by

Jean Paul Richter’s Quintus Fixlein in writing Sartor Resartus.

During the ten years before Carlyle began writing his treatise on

the “clothes philosophy,” he had been absorbed in the study, criti¬

cism, and translation of German literature and had devoted consid¬

erable attention to Richter in particular. In 1827, he had written for

Frazer’s Magazine a critical review of Doring’s Life of Richter;

volume III of the four volumes of Carlyle’s German Romance is de¬

voted entirely to Richter. In 1830, after Carlyle had begun writing

Sartor Resartus, he wrote a second essay, “Jean Paul Richter

Again,” which shows his continued admiration for the author of

Quintus Fixlein. The facts of Richter’s life — his poverty, his

struggle upward from an inferior social position, his giving up the¬

ology for teaching, his ultimate success in literature — are similar

enough to the facts of Carlyle’s life to create a bond of sympathy

as a foundation for such admiration.

Theodore Geissendoerfer has argued that Teufelsdrockh is a por¬

trait of Richter. Carlyle’s description of Richter’s “wild, untamed

energy” resembles his description of the Professor of Things in

General as “the old wild seer.” Both are characterized by boundless

learning, patient research, and sympathy. Carlyle’s description of

Richter’s style bears a close resemblance to the style of Teufels¬

drockh.1

Some of the evidence for stylistic resemblances between Sartor

Resartus and Quintus Fixlein which Henry Pape has presented is

very convincing, although his detailed and painstaking study of

choice of words, figures of speech, tendency to quote foreign writ¬

ers, similarities in grammar, punctuation, and sentence structure

depends largely upon rather far-fetched, literal resemblances and

not enough upon similarities of general form and philosophical

content.2

In opposition to the thesis that Richter profoundly influenced

Carlyle’s style, Archibald MacMechan and J. A. Froude maintain

1 “Carlyle and Jean Paul Frederick Richter,” Journal of English and Germanic

Philology, XXV ( 1926), 546-48; 548-53.

-Jean Paul als Quelle von Thomas Carlyles Anschauungen und Stil, Rostock, 1904.

253

254 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

that Carlyle’s style was formed before he began the study of Ger¬

man and that it is the product of the Annandale environment.

Froude cites Carlyle’s own statement on the development of his

style :

. . . the most important part by far was that of nature, you would per¬

haps say, if you have ever heard my father speak or my mother, and her

inward melodies of heart and voice.3

Later studies of Carlyle by Wilson and by Cazamian accept the

influence of Richter in a general way.4

It is the purpose of this paper to show by specific comparisons of

Sartor Resartus and Quintus Fixlein that in spite of general simi¬

larities in narrative form, philosophical content and literary style

between these two books, Carlyle’s Sartor Resartus is a distinc¬

tively original work and not an imitation of Quintus Fixlein.

A general resemblance between Quintus Fixlein and Sartor Re-'

sartus must be admitted. Each is an Erziehungs- or Bildungs-

Roman, a spiritual biography, including some pedagogical matter,

the love story of the hero, and much mystical philosophy applied to

the criticism of the selfishness and hypocrisy of a materialistic age.

The purpose of both authors is to keep living a faith in spirit and in

beauty. But along with this general resemblance go specific differ¬

ences in content and in form.

Attention is often called to the similarity of the narrative device

in the two books. Both authors act as editors : Carlyle pretends to

receive Teufelsdrockh’s manuscript in six paper bags marked with

signs of the zodiac ; Richter is given by Quintus Fixlein some auto¬

biographical sketches which have been filed in the pigeon-holes or

letter-boxes of his child’s-desk. It is reasonable to suppose that the

division of Quintus Fixlein into fifteen letter-boxes might have sug¬

gested to the translator the suitability of a similar device for the

unusual book he was planning. But Carlyle invented for himself

greater editorial difficulties, for the paperbags contained “miscel¬

laneous masses of Sheets, and oftener Shreds and Snips.” Richter

had an easy task of editorship, for Fixlein’s manuscripts were as

neatly prepared as we should expect to find the work of an author

whose most interesting contribution to learning was A Collection

of Errors of the Press.

Another difference in content and form is that Quintus Fixlein

contains more narrative material than does Sartor Resartus. In the

latter there are merely the biographical facts that explain the storm

and stress out of which Teufelsdrockh develops his philosophy;

more pages are devoted to expounding this idealistic philosophy

3 “Preface,” Athenaeum edition (New York, Ginn and Company, 1905), p. XLVII ;

J. A. Froude, Thomas Carlyle (New York, Scribner’s, 1882), I, 323, 324.

4 Louis Cazamian, Carlyle (New York, MacMillan, 1932), pp. 50-51; D. A. Wilson,

Carlyle (New York, E. P. Dutton, 1924) II, 111.

1958] Cooper — Quintus Fixlein and Sartor Resartus 255

than to sketching the biography. The German romance sustains the

narrative to the end of the last chapter and weaves the philosophy

into the warp of the narrative. A brief summary of Quintus Fix¬

lein will show this difference in emphasis and structural form.

Egidius Zebedaeus Fixlein, master of the fifth form in a German

gymnasium, is ambitious to become pastor of Hukelum. His pa¬

troness, Frau Auf hammer, offers him as a substitute honor the

conrectorship of his gymnasium. When she dies the following-

spring, she remembers him in her will with a splendid bed, a ducat

for every year of his life, and the remuneration of his quintusship

and conrectorship fees. By the mistake of a messenger who does not

discriminate between two spellings of the same name, Egidius Fix¬

lein receives the desired appointment as pastor of Hukelum, which

was intended for Hans Fuchlein. This mistaken appointment makes

possible Fixlein’s marriage to Thiennette.

It is a superstition in Fixlein’s family that all the men die on or

before their thirty-second birthday. Fixlein postpones his wedding

until after he has survived the fatal day, or the day he believes to

be his thirty-second birthday. There is some uncertainty about the

age because the parish records had been destroyed when the church

burned. As pastor of Hukelum, Fixlein’s greatest project is the

raising of money for a new steeple-ball for his church. Upon the

removal of the old steeple-ball and the reading of the records it

contains, Fixlein discovers that he is one year younger than he sup¬

posed and that the next day is his thirty-second birthday.

Immediately he falls ill of a fever, but he is cured by a simple

therapeutic method suggested by his biographer : his mother brings

his childhood toys to his bedside and talks to him as if he were a

child and the almanac clock is moved ahead eight days so that upon

awakening Fixlein believes that he has safely passed the fatal birth¬

day. The narrative concludes with a sentimental farewell of the

author to Thiennette and her husband as they leave the quiet hamlet

of Hukelum for the noisy strife of the world.5

This summary of only the main narrative elements in Quintus

Fixlein shows its greater proportion of narrative in comparison

with Sartor Resartus in which the narrative is subordinated to the

“clothes philosophy” and confined to five chapters of Book Two.

From even so brief a summary of the narrative in Quintus Fix¬

lein, the difference in the character of the two heroes is apparent.

Fixlein is a quiet, passive man with one ambition, which he realizes

through another’s mistake, and one fear, which he conquers through

the loving deception of his family. The volcanic Teufelsdrockh fights

0 Jean Paul Richter, “Quintus Fixlein,” translation by Carlyle, German Romance

(Edinburgh, Tait, 1827), III, 154—345. All references to Quintus Fixlein in the text

of this paper are to this translation.

256 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

his own battles ; he may be a portrait of Richter but certainly he

does not resemble Fixlein.

The relation of the love story to the motivation of the hero’s

character is entirely different in the two books. Teufelsclrockh can

not marry Blumine because he is poor and beneath her in social

position ; the issue of his love is black despair until he hears in his

soul the “Everlasting Yea.” Fixlein loves a girl of his own class

and their marriage serves to right an injustice done her, for Frau

Aufhammer had died before completing that part of her will in

which she intended to remember Thiennette.

Georg Brandes calls Richter a writer of realistic idyls,6 and

Quintus Fixlein has, indeed, that peculiar mingling of a romantic

and sentimental atmosphere with homely realistic details which

justifies such a characterization. The domestic scenes in the moth¬

er’s garden cottage and later in the parsonage, the descriptions of

the wedding crowds, of Fixlein’s moving to Hukelum, and of the

preparation for Thiennette’s birthday celebration, the scenes con¬

nected with the raising of the steeple-ball, the humor of the stu¬

dents’ fishing for the professor’s hens, the details of the barn used

for a church — these are convincing German scenes ; the characters

are flesh and blood persons in spite of the idyllic frame for the

picture and the euphuistic flavor of the style.

Since Sartor Resartus contains so much more of philosophical

exposition than of biographical narrative, there is not the oppor¬

tunity for the kind of realism which Quintus Fixlein contains. In¬

stead of the realistic tone, the few events of Teufelsdrockh’s life are

related in the manner of the modern stream-of-consciousness novel

and the descriptions are given in an impressionistic style. Teufels-

drockh in his tower, in spite of realistic touches in the descriptions

of the disorder, is not as real a figure as Fixlein in his cottage home,

his gymnasium, his church, and his parsonage.

These differences in narrative emphasis, in the character of the

hero, and in realistic detail indicate that Carlyle was by no means

modeling Sartor Resartus on the romance he had just translated.

Another general resemblance between these two books is the

idealistic philosophy expressed in each, but when the elements in

these philosophies are placed side by side, certain individual differ¬

ences appear. Pape in his study (p. 42) maintains that Carlyle got

his “clothes philosophy”, even the Swift influence, through Richter.

But Carlyle’s use of clothes as a symbol for the superficial and

visual world is a metaphor consistently sustained throughout Sartor

Resartus, while the references to clothes in Quintus Fixlein are

more incidental to separate descriptions or comments. The follow-

0 Main Currents in Nineteenth Century Literature (London, Heineman, 1902) II, 66.

1958] Cooper — Quintus Fixlein and Sartor Resartus

257

ing passages cited by Pape illustrate this difference which Pape has

ignored in arguing for Richter’s influence upon Carlyle.

For him a garment was a sort of hollow half-man, to whom only the

nobler parts and the first principles were wanting: he honoured these

wrappages and hulls of our interior, (p. 129)

the crazy philosophers in Gulliver's Travels who, for social converse, in¬

stead of the names of things, brought the things themselves tied up in a

bag; (p. 166)

This afternoon she had been over . . . visiting the white-muslin Thiennette.

(p. 136)

It might be that, as according to Tristam Shandy, clothes; according to

Walter Shandy and Lavater, proper names exert an influence on men. . . .

(P- 168)

There is also the humorous metaphor with regard to Fixlein :

He purposely remained in his own Edition in Sunday Wove-paper: I

mean, he did not lay aside his Sunday coat. ... (p. 138)

Then there is the remark, which Pape missed, about the Krauter-

miitze (herb-cap) which the parson put on to strengthen his

memory :

‘Would to heaven,’ said I, ‘that Princes, instead of their Princely Hats,

Doctors, and Cardinals, instead of thews, and Saints instead of their

martyr crowns, would clap such memory-bonnets on their heads!’ (p. 303)

It is true, as Pape has pointed out, that Carlyle almost quotes

Richter in calling clothes “those Shells and outer husks of the body”

and that he refers to Walter Shandy’s insistence that there is much

in names.7 (II, i, 88). These two resemblances, one a natural result

of their both knowing a book that any well-read man of the time

would know, are perhaps not evidence of a profound influence of

Richter upon Carlyle’s style, but rather evidence that the two writ¬

ers shared an interest in symbols.

Of greater importance than any mere similarity of phrasing is

the idealistic character of the philosophy in both books. To Richter

as well as to Carlyle, the material world is a symbol of the invisible

God. Richter wrote :

I looked up to the starry sky, and an everlasting chain stretches thither,

and over and below; and all is Life and Warmth and Light, and all is

God-like or God. ... (p. 309)

Carlyle would enjoy translating such a passage, for he wrote:

Is not God’s universe a Symbol of the Godlike; is not Immensity a Temple?

. . . Listen, and for organ-music thou wilt ever, as of old, hear the morn¬

ing stars sing together (III, vii, 251)

. . . Through every star, through every grass-blade, and most through

every living soul, the glory of a present God still beams. (Ill, viii, 261)

7 Sartor Resartus (New York, A. L. Burt, n.d.) Book II, chapter i, page 88. All ref¬

erences within this paper to Sartor Resartus are to book, chapter, and page in this

edition.

258 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

Richter has no greater respect for mere reason than has Carlyle. In

Quintus Fixlein, the author addresses his hero thus :

How didst thou behave thee in these hot whirlpools of pleasure? — Thou

movedst thy Fishtail (Reason), and therewith describedst for thyself a

rectilineal course through the billows, (p. 241)

Carlyle’s well-known attitude toward reason as second to intuition

may be illustrated by this question :

Shall your science proceed in the small chink-lighted, or even oil-lighted,

underground workshops of Logic alone? (I, x, 69)

In the philosophy of happiness of the two writers there are more

significant likenesses and differences. Richter gives three ways to

happiness :

The first, rather an elevated road, is this: To soar away so far above

the clouds of life, that you see the whole external world, with its wolf-

dens, charnel-houses, and thunder-rods, lying far beneath you, shrunk

into a little child’s garden. The second is: Simply to sink down in this

little garden; and there to nestle yourself so snugly, so homewise, in some

furrow, that in looking out from your warm lark-nest, you likewise can

discern no wolf-dens, charnel-houses or thunder-rods, but only blades and

ears, every one of which, for the nest bird, is a tree, and a sun screen,

and rain screen. The third, finally, which I look upon as the hardest and

cunningest, is that of alternating between the other two. . . .

every mortal with a great Purpose, or even a perennial Passion ... all

these men fence themselves in by their internal world against the frosts

and heats of the external. ... (p. 116)

Furthermore, Richter states that his purpose in publishing Quintus

Fixlein is “not so much to procure you a pleasure as to teach you

how to enjoy one” (p. 115) and that “I may show to the whole

earth that we ought to value little joys more than great ones.” (p.

118) In the last letter box, Richter gives again “elementary prin¬

ciples of the science of happiness’ :

Enjoy thy Existence more than thy Manner of Existence . . . Stake in no

lotteries, — keep at home, — give and accept no pompous entertainments, —

travel not abroad every year! . . . Despise Life, that thou mayst enjoy

it! — Inspect the neighborhood of thy life; every shelf, every nook of thy

abode; and nestling in, quarter thyself in the farthest and most domestic

winding of thy snail house! — Look upon a capital but as a collection of

villages, a village as some blind alley of a capital; fame as the talk of

thy neighbors at the street-door; a library as a learned conversation, joy

as a second, sorrow as a minute, life as a day; and three things as all in

all: God, Creation, Virtue! (pp. 300-01)

Concluding his book with a farewell walk with Fixlein and Thien-

nette, Richter looks back sadly at the little village of Hukelum and

pictures its simple life :

. . . the happy hamlet, whose houses were all dwellings of contented still

Sabbath-joy, and which is happy enough, though over its wide-parted

1958] Cooper — Quintus Fixlein and Sartor Resartus

259

pavement stones there passes every week but one barber, every holiday

but one di’esser of hair, and every year but one hawker of parasols,

(p. 306)

Something of this same perspective is expressed throughout the

spiritual conflict of Teufelsdrockh. In his first agony of soul, he

turns to nature for healing. In the grandeur of the mountains he

says :

... it seems as if Peace has established herself in the bosom of Strength.

(II, vii, 152)

As he views a magnificent sunset :

... he felt as if Death and Life were one, as if the Earth were not dead,

as if the Spirit of the Earth had its throne in that splendor, and his own

spirit were therewith holding1 communion. (II, vi, 153)

After passing through the darkness of “The Everlasting No” and

“The Centre of Indifference,” he found light and peace in his philos¬

ophy of self-annihilation and work :

There is in Man a Higher than Love of Happiness: he can do without

Happiness, and instead thereof find Blessedness! . . . Love not Pleasure;

love God . . . Do the Duty which lies nearest thee . . . and working, be¬

lieve, live, and be free. (II, ix, 189, 191-92)

Although there is agreement here that happiness is based upon a

spiritual emancipation from a material world, Richter does not con¬

cern himself with Carlyle’s idea of renunciation. Carlyle’s doctrine

of “Produce! Produce!” is a social message. Richter’s philosophy

of happiness is self-centered : he gets away from the ugliness of the

world by soaring above it or nestling behind a lovely thing that

shuts out the sight of the ugly. Carlyle would cultivate the garden ;

Richter would snuggle down between the furrows, screened by the

blades and ears.

Both writers show sympathy with humble laboring people. The

settings of Quintus Fixlein are simple cottage rooms and rural land¬

scapes. The story opens with Fixlein walking through the country

toward his mother’s home; his mother is working in the kitchen

when he arrives; her home is the gardener’s cottage of the castle

of Aufhammer; the country church-yard, the church, and the par¬

sonage are important in the story. The descriptions and narratives

are from the lives of people who work for their living.

Richter has sympathy for the down-trodden government clerks :

What can it profit the poor quill-driving brethren, whose souls have not

even wing-shells, to say nothing of wings? Or these tethered persons with

the best back, breast, and neck-fms, who float motionless in the wicker

Fish-box of the State, and are not allowed to swim, because the Box or

State, long ago tied to the shore, itself swims in the name of the fishes?

To the whole standing and writing hosts of heavily-laden State-domestics,

260 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

Purveyors, Clerk of all departments, and all the lobsters packed together

heels over head into the Lobster-basket of the Government office-rooms,

and for refreshment, sprinkled over with a few nettles; to these persons,

what way of becoming happy here, can I possibly point out? (p. 117)

Richter’s answer is that by taking a compound microscope and

discovering

that their drop of Burgundy is properly a Red Sea, that buttei’fly dust is

peacock’s feathers, mouldiness a flowery field, and sand a heap of jewels,

(pp. 117-118)

a man may win happiness with “not great but little good-haps.”

This sympathy with the worker and this insistence upon realiz¬

ing the spiritual significance of the ordinary and near-at-hand is

found also in the descriptions of Teufelsdrockh’s childhood home

and in Carlyle’s praise of the worker :

Two men I honor, and no third. First, the toilworn Craftsman that with

earthmade Implement laboriously conquers the Earth, and makes her

man’s. ... A second man I honor, and still more highly: Him who is seen

toiling for the spiritually indispensable; not daily bread, but Bread of

Life. . . . Unspeakably touching is it, however, when I find both dignities

united; and he that must toil outwardly for the lowest of man’s wants, is

also toiling inwardly for the highest. (II, iii, 225-26)

Carlyle feels a bond of brotherhood with the laborer :

0 my Brother, my Brother, why can I not shelter thee in my bosom, and

wipe away all teal’s from thine eyes! (II, ix, 186)

A highly idealized conception of human relationships is apparent

in the poetic picture of love and of women in Quintus Fixlein :

Thiennette is “like a lily dipt in the red twilight”, “a smooth, fair¬

haired, white-capped dove,” “a gentle soul” ; the bethrothal of Fix¬

lein and Thiennette is a tender spiritual experience; their married

life is a “Greek fire of moderate and everlasting love”, (pp. 138,

140, 141, 199-200, 278.) Richter believes that

Love, like men, dies oftener of excess than of hunger, (p. 233)

Since Teufelsdrockh’s love ends in frustration and despair, there

is not the same tone in the passages about love and women, yet to

him love is

a discerning of the Infinite in the Finite, of the Idea made Real. (II,

v, 143)

and he had a few, short ecstatic days with Blumine.

As we should expect from idealistic philosophers, both writers

believe in peace. Richter concludes his book with these words :

Ah retire, bloody war, like red Mars; and thou still Peace come forth

like the mild divided moon. (p. 309)

1958] Cooper — Quintus Fixlein and Sartor Resartus

261

Carlyle asks ironically :

Or what will any member of the Peace Society make of such an assertion

as this: “The lower people everywhere desire war. Not so unwisely; there

is then a demand for lower people — to be shot!” (Ill, vii, 248)

Both writers satirize the materialism, selfishness, and pettiness

which prevent the realization of the ideal. Richter describes the

selfish struggle as

the rioting, fermenting Court-sphere, where men in bull-beggar tone de¬

mand from Fate a root of Life-Licorice, thick as the arm, like the botanical

one on the Wolga, not so much that they may chew the sweet beam them¬

selves, as fell others to earth with it. (p. 306)

Teufelsdrockh tells us that the divine command has faded away

from remembrance and its opposite “Thou shalt steal” is every¬

where promulgated. He pictures the world as a place where

each, isolated, regardless of his neighbor, turned against his neighbor,

clutches what he can get and cries ‘Mine’ ... on all hands hear it pas¬

sionately proclaimed: Laissez faire. (Ill, v, 229-30)

Frau von Aufhammer is described as “lively, pious, and proud”

and satirized for her patronizing manner toward Fixlein :

Her heart was a flowing cornucopia to all men, yet this not from philan¬

thropy but from rigid devotion: the lower classes she assisted, cherished,

and despised, regarding nothing in them, except it were their piety,

(p. 143)

This passage is typical of Richter’s less sympathetic attitude

toward the nobility and public officials than toward Fixlein and his

household. One idyllic quality of his book is its implied premise

that simple country people are inherently noble. Carlyle has a

similar prejudice against the aristocracy which colors the Blumine

episode and appears in Teufelsdrockh’s lyric tribute to the “toil-

worn Craftsman.” (II, iii, 225.)

Both writers show their contempt for greed and graft. Richter

takes occasion to satirize the power which Frau Aufhammer has to

bestow an academic promotion upon Fixlein and to comment thus

upon the whole corrupt appointive system :

The Town-Syndic drove a trade in Hamberg candles; and the then Bur-

germeister in coffeebeans. . . . Their joint traffic, however, which they

counted on exclusively, was in the eight school-offices of Flachenfingen. . . .

Properly speaking, the Councillor derives his freedom of office-trading

from that principle of the Roman law: . . He who has the right of giving

anything away, has also the right to dispose of it for money, if he can.

Now as the council-members have palpably the right of conferring offices

gratis, the right of selling them must follow of course, (pp. 164-5.)

Richter continues with a long ironic argument for the preservation

of the rights of selling offices rather than for bestowing them

262 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

merely “for connexions, relationships, party recommendations and

bowings and cringings.” In order to prevent such evils, he suggests

separating the virtues of the office from the office and selling it

with or without the virtues, hereby increasing the cash business.

Although Carlyle’s hatred of greed and graft in all forms is not

expressed in this kind of light humorous tone and his irony, as in

the famous passage on hunting down the paupers (II, iv, 227),

resembles Swift’s bitter irony more than Richter’s gentle restraint,

both despise these vices. The difference of tone has been well-

characterized by Carlyle, who said of Richter, “His very contempt

is placid and tolerant.”8

Petty ambition and jealousy is satirized by Richter through Hans

Fiichlein’s feelings of superiority toward Egidius, who has not pur¬

chased a patent nobility and who does not spell his name the aristo¬

cratic way, through Hans’ envy of his rival’s promotion, through

the desire of the peasants to have their names and those of their

children in the new steeple ball. With such materialistic concerns

Carlyle, too, would have no patience.

The pedagogical element contained in both books shows a scorn

for pedantry, which is perhaps one way in which academic pettiness

manifests itself. Richter makes fun of Fixlein’s learned works :

He had labored — I shall omit his less interesting performances — at a Col¬

lection of Errors of the Press in German writings: he compared Errata

with each other; showed which occurred most frequently; observed that

important results were to be drawn from this, and advised the reader to

draw them. (pp. 146-47)

Fixlein observed that

The Jews had their Masora to show, which told them how every letter

was to be found in their Bible; . . . But have we Christians any similar

Masora for Luther’s Bible to show? Has it been accurately investigated

which is the middle word or the middle letter here, which vowel appears

seldomest, and how often each vowel? Thousands of Bible Christians go

out of the world, without ever knowing the German A occurs 323,015

times (therefore above 7 times oftener than the Hebrew one) in their

Bible, (p. 147)

Carlyle’s scorn for pedantry is more serious and bitter :

My teachers, says he [Teufelsdrockh], were hide-bound pedants. . . . How

can an inanimate, mechanical gerund-grinder foster the growth of any¬

thing? . . . How shall he give kindling, in whose own inward man there is

no living coal, but all is burnt out to a dead grammatical cinder? (II,

iii, 106)

The reference to Fixlein’s leaving “the Death- valley of the Gym¬

nasium” where one “mounts from one degree to another, not very

8 German Romance, ITT, 14.

1958] Cooper — Quintus Fixlein and Sartor Resartus 263

dissimilar to the common torment of Hell” reflects Richter’s own

distaste for a profession where

merits are always rewarded by more opportunities for new merits; and

often enough he [the schoolmaster] is not dismissed from his post at all.

(p. 232)

To Fixlein, the life of a pastor seemed like Paradise in contrast to

the life of a Quintus, for

Here dwells no envy, no colleague, no Subrector; here in the heavenly

country, no man works in the New Universal German Library . . . here

the Perfected requires no more increase of knowledge. . . . Here too one

need not sorrow that Sunday and Saint’s day so often fall together into

one. (p. 231)

Ignoring some sly satire on the disposition of Fixlein and the

general attitude of clergymen toward intellectual growth, we may

note that the feeling of Fixlein for academic life is similar to that

of Teufelsdrockh for “the worst of all hitherto discovered universi¬

ties” with

a small ill-chosen library; . . . certain persons, under the title of Profes¬

sors, being stationed at the gates, to declare aloud that it was a University.

(II, iii, 110-11)

The picture of the school life of Teufelsdrockh from the elementary

school through the gymnasium and the university is an unhappy,

uninspiring experience. Fixlein as a teacher in a German gym¬

nasium finds academic life a burden and a torture.

These examples show the philosophy of the two books to be

similar in general character : each expresses a spiritual interpreta¬

tion of life and of happiness and satirizes all forms of materialism

and greed that are inconsistent with this idealism. The two authors

agree that the complex life of a mechanical age enslaves the soul,

that freedom is found in human relations through a spirit of love,

and that simple virtue seems to be associated with simple living.

In addition to the general resemblances of Quintus Fixlein and

Sartor Resartus in narrative devices and in philosophical back¬

ground, there are certain likenesses in style to which attention has

frequently been called. Professor MacMechan cites Thoreau’s state¬

ment that Carlyle’s description of Richter’s style is a good analysis

of his own and says that Lowell, too, felt that Carlyle was pro¬

foundly influenced by Richter.9 MacMechan does not agree with this

conclusion but prefers to accept Froude’s opinion that Carlyle’s

style is not German at all but rather the result of the Annandale

environment.

Any reader of Sartor Resartus will note that Carlyle’s capitaliza¬

tion of nouns and use of compounded words suggest a German in-

9 “Preface,” Athenaeum edition, pp. xiv-xv.

261 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

fluence, but these are the superficial characteristics of the style. An

analysis of the style lying within the language of the two books

shows some resemblances but also differences supporting the origi¬

nality of Carlyle and his superiority to Richter in many qualities

of his language. A comparison of these style characteristics is sig¬

nificant : intrusion of the personality of the author, lyric qualities

of the prose, use of figurative language, sentimentality, humor, im¬

pressionistic description, wealth of illusion, sentence structure, and

diction.

Jean Paul intrudes himself all through the narrative by address¬

ing the characters :

Sleep, for today, though thou hast done nought ill

. . . All prosperity attend thee, thou foolish Quintus! (pp. 141-42)

And besides, dear Fixlein. . . . How didst thou behave . . . ? (p. 241)

Happy Fixlein! . . . How shall I paint thee . . . . ? (p. 244)

Good-night, old Fixlein! I am tired, (p. 259)

O Thiennette, go away from the sick bed. ... (p. 294)

He introduces his own personality by adding comments about him¬

self such as these :

For toward the critical Starchamber of the Reviewers he entertained not

the contempt which some authors actually feel — or only affect, as for

instance, I. (p. 257)

And here must I in reference to those reviewing Mutes, who may be for

casting the noose of strangulation around my neck, most particularly

beg, that, before so doing on account of my Chapters being called Letter¬

boxes, they would have the goodness to look whose blame it was, and to

think whether I could possibly help it, seeing the Quintus had divided his

Biography into such Boxes himself, (pp. 150-51)

Several times he addresses the reader in this informal fashion :

I lied not, for so it is. . . . But look in the note. (p. 285)

And there follows a footnote supporting the truth of the statement.

Then he reminds the reader that he is reading by explaining that a

scene was without witnesses

except the two or three thousand readers who are peeping with me through

the window, (p. 252)

Carlyle sometimes addresses Teufelsdrockh directly :

Poor Teufelsdrockh! It is clear to demonstrate thou art smit. (II, vi, 143)

Unhappy Teufelsdrockh! Though neither Fleet nor Traffic, nor Com¬

modores pleased thee. . . . (II, v, 133)

He does not, so often as Richter, follow his exclamation of address

with a sentence of direct address. Oftener the third person is used:

Too-heavy-laden Teufelsdrockh! Yet surely his bands are loosening. (II,

vii, 180)

1958] Cooper — Quintus Fixlein and Sartor Resartus

265

Another difference between the two books is that Jean Paul be¬

comes a character in his book by arriving to visit Fixlein. Carlyle’s

connection with his hero remains that of editor.

The lyric quality of the prose is a marked stylistic resemblance

between Quintus Fixlein and Sartor Resartus. These passages from

Richter will illustrate :

Rise, fair Ascension and Marriage day and gladden

readers also! Adorn thyself with the fairest jewel,

with the bride, whose soul is pure and glittering

as its vesture, (p. 242)

0 never fall, thou lily of Heaven, and may four

springs instead of four seasons open and shut

thy flower-bells to the sun! (p. 247)

White night-butterflies flitted,

white blossoms fluttered,

white stars fell,

and the white snow-powder hung silvery

in the high shadow of the Earth,

which reaches beyond the moon,

and which is our Night.

Then began the Eolian Harp of the Creation

to tremble and to sound, blown on from above,

and my immortal soul was a string in this Harp. (p. 308)

Readers of Carlyle have often commented upon the lyric quality of

the concluding paragraphs of “The Everlasting Yea.”

But it is with Man’s Soul as it was with Nature:

the beginning of Creation is — Light . . .

The mad primeval Discord is hushed;

the rudely jumbled conflicting elements

bind themselves into separate Firmaments:

deep silent rock foundations are built beneath;

and the skyey vault with its everlasting Luminaries above: instead of a

dark wasteful chaos, we have a blooming, fertile, heaven-encompassed

World. ... I too could not but say to myself; Be no longer a Chaos but a

World, or even a Worldkin ! Produce! (II, ix, 193-94)

There is also the dithyramb on silence from the chapter “Symbols” :

The benignant efficacies of Concealment who shall speak or sing? Silence

and Secrecy! Altars might still be raised to them. . . . Silence is the ele¬

ment in which great things fashion themselves together. . . . Speech is of

Time, Silence is of Eternity. (II, iii, 215-16)

Although the prose style of both authors takes on a poetic quality

at times, the passages just quoted illustrate a typical difference in

that poetic quality. Richter is highly ornamented, self-centered, re¬

lating the universe to man. Carlyle’s vision is of a vast universe to

which he seeks to relate man, and his language is appropriate and

dignified, without the prettiness of decoration which characterizes

Richter.

266 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

Further examination of the figurative language shows the supe¬

riority of Carlyle. Richter strains for effects, piles on metaphors so

profusely that the prose is ridiculously overburdened with them at

times, in spite of the beauty in some of his luxuriant passages. A

comparison of these two descriptions of sunsets, the first from

Quintus Fixlein, the second from Sartor Resartus, will illustrate

the difference in the use of figurative language :

I see the Sun standing amid roses in the western sky, into which he has

thrown his ray-brush wherewith he has been painting the earth, (p. 261)

A hundred and a hundred savage peaks, in the last light of Day; all

glowing, of gold and amethyst, like giant spirits of the wilderness. . . .

(II, vi, 153)

Richter is fond of personification. These examples seem natural

and unstrained:

The Spring was standing like a conqueror, with Winter at its feet. (p. 248)

Winter commencing his ice-painting on the windows, (p. 258)

But less successful are figures like these :

And so Delirium dyed for itself rosy wings in the Aurora of life, and

fanned the panting soul, — (p. 296)

When it comes to the figurative language used in the love epi¬

sodes, there are interesting similarities and differences. Many writ¬

ers have compared love to an electric force. Both Richter and Car¬

lyle use such comparisons. Richter says :

The fingers are electric dischargers of a fire sparkling along every fibre.

. . . (p. 193)

Carlyle’s chapter “Romance” abounds in figures drawn from elec¬

tricity :

It is this approximation of the Like and Unlike that such heavenly attrac¬

tion, as between Negative and Positive, first burns out in a flame. (II,

v, 134)

In the conducting medium of Fantasy, flames forth that fire-development

of the universal Spiritual Electricity, which, as unfolded between man

and woman, we first emphatically denominate Love. (II, v, 134)

He speaks of love also as “Electric, Promethean glance.” (II, v,

136) But he does not stop with this imagery. Love for him becomes

a “volcanic, earth-bringing, all consuming fire” with explosions

“more or less Vesuvian.” In the inner nature of his hero there is a

“nitre of latent passion and sulphurous humor enough.” After the

“mad explosion, painfully lacerating the heart itself,” there re¬

mains “only the crater of an extinct volcano.” (II, v, 136-37)

Richter has no figures to correspond with these. For him, love is a

force operating more quietly, “a Greek fire of a moderate and ever¬

lasting love.” As in the case of several other comparisons, there

1958] Cooper — Quintus Fixlein and Sartor Resartus 267

appears the greater dynamic force of Carlyle ; his impatient, violent

energy contrasts with the calmer sentimentalism of Richter.

With respect to Blumine and Thiennette the language is similar.

Blumine is a “Goddess of Flowers,” a “Rose-Goddess.” (II, v, 138,

140) Thiennette is like a “lily dyed in the red twilight”; she re¬

sembles an Italian flower, (pp. 138, 190) “She herself was a little

conscious . . . that she was bending her flower-leaves imperceptibly

toward a terrestrial body, namely toward Fixlein.” (p. 190) Not

only are women flowers, but they are angels, and figures from Para¬

dise abound in the Fifth Chapter, Book Two of Sartor Resartus and

the Fifth Letter-Box of Quintus Fixlein, the latter always carrying

the comparison to greater extremes.

The more one studies Richter’s figurative language, the more he

feels the superiority of Carlyle’s. Quintus Fixlein is heavily-laden

with metaphor, simile, and personification of the over-strained

type; Carlyle uses striking language, picturesque language, but

there is never in it that anxiety for effect that easily becomes ridicu¬

lous. Carlyle’s style has a grotesque strength, but Richter’s is weak¬

ened by the weight of the ornaments which he piles on. As an ex¬

ample of such a defect take this figure from a description of

Fixlein’s sermon writing :

. . . there digging out a marrowy sentence, here clipping off a song

blossom with both to garnish his homilectic pastry, (p. 235)

Or take this description of Fixlein’s gazing lovingly at Thiennette:

Fixlein . . . began to unrol the spiral butterfly’s-sucker of his vision, and

to lay it on the motionless leaves of this same sleeping flower, (pp. 189-90)

Carlyle is not guilty of a conceit of this type.

Such defects of over-ornamentation in Richter may be the prod¬

uct of a sentimentality which Carlyle does not share. Jean Paul is

conscious of this attitude, but he is too much of a German Ro¬

manticist to want to change it. In one of his characteristic addresses

to himself, he says :

I would even now — for I still recollect how I hung with streaming eyes,

over these two loved ones, as over their corpses — address myself and say:

Far too soft Jean Paul whose chalk still sketches the models of Nature

on a ground of Melancholy; harden thy heart like thy frame, and waste

not thyself and others by such thoughts. Yet why should I do it, why

should I not directly confess what, in the softest emotion, I said to these

two? (p. 307)

He believes in the necessity of tears and their value :

the fire of love like that of Naphtha likes to swim on water, (p. 193)

The heart . . . was plunging with all its wounds in warm streams of tears

to be healed; as chapped flutes close together by lying in water and get

back their tones, (p. 198)

The Harmonica-bells in man which sound to the tones of a higher world,

must, like glass Harmonica-bells, if they are to act, be kept moist, (p. 196)

268 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

Fixlein behaves like the sentimental hero, weeping when the steeple-

ball is hung, falling ill because of fear.

Like many writers of the sentimental school, Richter’s romanti¬

cism has a gloomy aspect. Throughout Quintus Fixlein there is pre¬

occupation with death ; this is not true of Sartor Resartus. Fix-

lein’s life is overshadowed by the fear of death on his thirty-second

birthday. The memories of the younger brother who was drowned

move like a ghost through the narrative, (p. 250-54) On the eve¬

ning of their marriage day, Fixlein and Thiennette go to the grave

of Fixlein’s father and address his spirit tvhile Thiennette feels the

ghosts of her parents arise. The day of joy is concluded with “a holy

embrace at a father’s grave.” (p. 250) When Thiennette becomes

pregnant, she expects to die and the unborn child is compared to a

“little angel sculptured on a grave stone.” (p. 254)

Carlyle has none of this kind of melancholy. His melancholy is

social; it grows from a despair over the materialistic, mechanical

philosophy of his age.

To offset the almost sickening effect of Richter’s sentimentality

and romantic gloom, there is his whimsical humor. Vaughan

analyzes it as a “collation of incongruous images and ideas from

his miscellaneous reading.”10 Though the following images are not

easily identified as drawn from miscellaneous reading, they do

illustrate the collocation of incongruous ideas.

Our Hekelum voyager could still, after evening prayers, pick leaf-insects,

with Thiennette, from the roses; worms from the bed, and a Heaven of

joy from every minute, (p. 155)

He then softly wakened his mother . . . and she had the city cook to

waken who, like several other articles of wedding-furniture, had been bor¬

rowed for a day or two from Flachsenfingen. (p. 243)

In describing the service at the placing of the new steeple-ball,

Richter says that the pastor offered

a prayer for Mr. Stechman the slater (who was already hanging on the

outside of the steeple and loosening the old shaft) ; and entreated that he

might not break his neck, or any of his members, (p. 280)

There is a gentle whimsical quality in his complaint that other

months besides May deserve poetical night-songs much more, hence :

I myself have often gone so far as to adopt the idiom of our market

women, and instead of May butter, to say June butter, as also June,

March, April songs, (p. 260)

The best illustration of humor in Quintus Fixlein is in the story of

the poverty of Fixlein’s student days. Instead of sentimentalizing

over the noble co-operation of four boys’ taking their turns in using-

one bed and one overcoat, Richter tells how they replenished their

10 O. Tt. Vaughan. The Romantic Revolt (New York, Scribner’s

i noo , p. si i.

1958] Cooper — Quintus Fixlein and Sartor Resartus

269

larder by an ingenious device of fishing for hens with a bread-pill

bait. The hens belonged to a professor who kept his fowl in a court¬

yard located conveniently beneath the window of the students’

room. (p. 134)

Perhaps his portrait of Frau Aufhammer is harsh, but it is

laughable :

... a ripe flower, with (adipose) neck-bulb, and tuberosity (of lard).

Already, in the half of her body cut away from life by the apoplexy, she

lay upon her lard-pillow but as on a softer grave. (143)

When she asks him about his orthodoxy, he proves it by launching

into a sick-bed exhortation which makes her pride of birth crouch

in humility before his pride of office and priest-hood.

The humor of Richter is lighter and less purposive than that of

Carlyle. Except for the fact that Carlyle has the similar quality of

effect through incongruity, it would be hard to see any resemblance

between the humor of the two writers. What Professor MacMechan

calls a “juxtaposition of the remote and the incongruous”11 might

be illustrated by these passages from Sartor Resartus.

Andreas too attended Church: yet more like a parade duty, for which he

in the other world expected pay with arrears. (II, ii, 100)

The hungry young looked up to their spiritual nurses; and for food were

bidden to eat the eas.t-wind. (II, iii, 114)

. . . when Caesar, doubtless with difficulty, swam the Nile, yet kept his

Commentaries dry. . . . (II, iii, 103)

Of course, the whole plan of Sartor Resartus is humorous : the

character of Teufelsdrockh, the clothes imagery of his philosophy,

the chaotic condition of his manuscript jammed into paper bags

with laundry bills and other incongruous matter. Satire and bitter

irony, however, predominate in the book. It is the passage on hunt¬

ing down the poor in the chapter on “Helotage”, or the chapter on

“The Dandiacal Body”, which is typical of Carlyle’s humor. He

lacks the lighter touches of Richter.

For impressionistic description, both Carlyle and Richter have a

gift. In the description of Fixlein’s wedding Richter has used the

impressionistic method :

. . . the marriage guests has all thrown off their night-caps, and were

drinking diligently ;— there was a clattering, a cooking, a frizzling; tea-

services, coffee-services, and warm beer-services were advancing in suc¬

cession; and plates of bride cakes were going around like potter’s frames

or cistern wheels. The Schoolmaster, with three young lads, was heard

rehearsing from his own house in Arioso . . . but now rushed all the arms

of the foaming joy-streams into one, when the sky-queen besprinkled with

blossoms, the bride, descended upon the Earth, full of quivering, humble

love; — when the bells began; — when the procession-column set forth with

" “Prefaro,” p. lv.

270 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

the whole village round and before it; — when the organ, the congregation,

the officiating priest, and the sparrows on the trees of the church window,

struck louder and louder their peals on the drums of the jubilee-festival,

(p. 245)

On Thiennette’s birthday her husband keeps her at church while

his mother prepares a surprise for his wife and puts the house in

the kind of order which is described thus :

The old mother . . . has all day been gliding about and brushing and bur¬

nishing- and scouring and wiping, . . . everything hangs, as with all mar¬

ried people who have no children, in its right place, brushes, flyflaps, and

almanacks; — the chairs are all stationed by the room police in their

ancient corners, (p. 251)

Carlyle’s account of the childhood of Teufelsdrockh employs the

impressionistic technique. He selects the “paternal orchard,” “the

brave old Linden,” the old men talking in its shadow, “the wearied

laborers reclining,” “the young men and maidens dancing,” the fes¬

tivals and games, the first short clothes, the suppers in the orchard

as the material of Teufelsdrockh’s recollections of his childhood.

(II, ii, 92-94)

Another quality of style which is common to both writers is a

wealth of allusion. Carlyle said of Richter’s style that it contained

“allusions to all the provinces of Earth, Sea, and Air.” Professor

MacMechan says that only two English writers, Macaulay and

Swinburne, approach Carlyle in wealth of remote allusion.12

A casual examination of almost any page from either Quintus Fix -

lein or Sartor Resartus reveals allusions to literature of many na¬

tions, to the Bible, to nature, to science, to mythology, and to con¬

temporary social and political conditions. But this common stylistic

quality does not mean that Carlyle is modeling his style upon

Richter’s, but rather indicates the wide reading of both men.

Pape cites Carlyle’s word-compounding in the German manner as

an evidence of Richter’s influence upon Carlyle’s style, but there is

one important point to consider in accepting this as evidence : Car¬

lyle was attempting deliberately to imitate a German style in pre¬

senting Sartor Resartus as the work of an erratic German philoso¬

pher; his word-compounding and coining of German-like words is

a logical part of his literary device and scarcely as strong an evi¬

dence of a permanent influence upon his style as Pape makes it.

Carlyle’s study of German for ten years previous to writing Sartor

Resartus had given him a feeling for the heavily-compounded nouns

so characteristic of German style.

The same comment is applicable to sentence rhythm and sentence

length, but it would not be surprising if translating a sentence like

12 Ibid. p. lii.

1958] Cooper — Quintus Fixlein and Sartor Resartus

271

this from Richter should exert some influence upon the style of the

translator :

And when he, himself hurried on by the internal stream, inexpressibly

softened by the farther recollections of his own fear of death on this day,

of his life now overspread with flowers and benefits, of his entombed

benefactress resting1 here in her narrow bed — when he now — -before the

dissolving countenance of her friend, his Thiennette — overpowered, mo¬

tionless, weeping, looked down from the pulpit to the door of the Shadech

vault, and said: “Thanks, thou pious soul, for the good thou hast done

this flock and to their new teacher; and in the fulness of time, may the

dust of thy God-fearing and man-loving breast gather itself, transfigured

as gold-dust, round thy reawakened heavenly heart,” was there an eye

in the audience dry? (p. 237)

The comparisons that have been made in this paper are the basis

for submitting the following conclusions :

1. Although there are general similarities in narrative form and

devices between Sartor Resartus and Quintus Fixlein, there are

specific differences : Carlyle’s narrative is subordinated to the philo¬

sophical content, his editorship is more energetic, his hero is a

more vigorous person, and Sartor Resartus lacks the many real¬

istic narrative and descriptive touches characterizing Quintus

Fixlein.

2. The most striking resemblances between the two books are in

their idealistic philosophy: both deplore the materialism of the con¬

temporary social life ; both hold a spiritual view of nature ; both

place intuition above reason, express sympathy for the humble

worker, satirize greed, corruption, and war ; both glorify peace and

simple living.

8. Yet within these likenesses there are differences : Richter’s

philosophy of happiness is a self-centered escape from the material¬

istic world; Carlyle has a social message in which the individual

must renounce self for the greater happiness of work for the com¬

mon good ; the tone of Richter’s satire is calm in contrast with Car¬

lyle’s vehement and often bitter denunciation and irony.

4. Carlyle’s style is superior to Richter’s in the effective use of

figurative language and the control of sentimentality.

5. A grotesque strength characterizes Carlyle’s excesses, but

Richter’s excesses are weakened by heavy ornamentation.

6. While Carlyle’s humor is like Richter’s in its mingling of in¬

congruous elements, he lacks the whimsical, light touches that mark

Jean Paul’s prose; the whole plan of Sartor Resartus is humorous,

but the theme is a serious one developed in a tone of great

earnestness.

7. Both writers have a gift for impressionistic description and

for a lyrical prose style.

272 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

8. The pages of the two books abound with allusions to many

sources.

9. The superficial similarities in diction and sentence structure

are appropriate devices for suggesting that Sartor Resartus is the

work of an eccentric German philosopher and should not be used as

an isolated argument for an influence of Richter’s style upon

Carlyle’s.

10. The general similarities of the two books are those that one

might expect when men of somewhat different temperaments but

similar convictions face similar social problems. The differences in

narrative form and tone, however, mark Sartor Resartus as a dis¬

tinctively original creation. It will always be a greater book than

Quintus Fixlein because a vigorous social message has more vitality

than a sentimental flight from reality.

AMERICAN CRITICISM OF GEORGE MEREDITH’S

NOVELS. 1860-1895

Dorothy Dee Bailey;1

Wisconsin State College, Superior

American tastes and attitudes, far from being static, have under¬

gone considerable changes within the last hundred years. Two cul¬

tural trends have been at war: traditional ethical idealism versus

scientific realism. The intellectual shot heard round the world was

Darwin’s The Origin of Species in 1859. Many intellectuals read the

book, but each interpreted it according to his own philosophy.

American scientists steeped in traditional concepts, such as Asa

Gray and Agassiz, interpreted the Darwinian explanation of evolu¬

tion according to their differing orthodoxy; novelists of the variety

of Crane and Norris applied the Darwinian theory of survival to

their interpretation of moral and economic issues ; financial wizards

appealed to a social Darwinism to justify their ways toward their

competitors ; and agnostics applauded so loudly naturalistic theories

to affirm their agnosticism that they could not deny their evangelical

heritage. Literary critics who abided by traditional ethical idealism

were challenged by scientific realists relying on a Darwinian ex¬

planation of natural laws, and they searched for biological tech¬

niques in the treatment of literature.

A study of the American literary criticism of the novels and

poetry of the British author George Meredith during the latter part

of the nineteenth century reveals to some extent this conflict in

critical theory, and thereby helps to explain one facet of American

cultural history. In addition it indicates a tardy acceptance of Mere¬

dith’s writings among American men of letters.

By 1860 George Meredith was known and respected in his own

country by George Eliot, Kingsley, John Morley, Leslie Stephen,

Carlyle, Fitzgerald, Swinburne, and Rossetti ; whereas the first

American notice of him which has come to light is an unsigned re¬

view published in Harper’s New Monthly in January of 1861. The

entire entry is short enough to quote :

Evcrn Harrington, or, He Would Be a Gentleman (published by Harper

and Brothers) is a spirited novel, illustrative of the distinctions of rank

in English society, and remarkable for the vivacity of its narrative and

the dramatic richness of its dialogue.1

“Present address: Commonwealth of Pennsylvania State Teachers College, West

Chester, Pennsylvania.

1 Harper’s New Monthly Magazine (January 18(51), XXIT, 200.

274 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

Not until 1875 did the eminent American literary critic Edmund

Clarence Stedman offer a criticism of Meredith’s writings. In his

critical study of poets of the Victorian era he wrote :

Meredith’s verse is a further illustration of turning at will from one

poetic method to another; he is dramatic and realistic, but occasionally

ventures upon a classical or romantic study. He often fails his purpose,

though usually having one. His Poems of the English Roadside seem to

me his most original work, of them “Juggling Jerry” is the best.2

In line with apologists of idealism who scorned most departures

from traditional poetic techniques, Mr. Stedman logically condemns

Meredith’s poetic experimentations.

In the thirteenth edition (1887) of his book, Mr. Stedman in¬

creases Meredith’s allotted space to a half page, praises his poetry

for its originality, and calls him “the Emerson of English poets.”3

He sees veritable harmony between Emerson’s “Woodnotes” and

Meredith’s “The Woods of Westermain” and “The Lark Ascending.”

The British poet, the critic finds now, has talent for melody and

metrical structure. In Victorian Anthology 1837-1895 , a companion

to Victorian Poets, Meredith is represented by five of his most

famous sonnets from Modern Love; “Juggling Jerry,” “The Lark

Ascending,” “Lucifer in Starlight,” “The Spirit of Shakespeare,”

and “Two Masks.” Modern anthologists still regard these selections

as Meredith’s greatest poetic achievements.

By virtue of including a criticism of Meredith’s poetry in his

book, Stedman was the first American critic of note to recognize

his talents; furthermore, he perceived an underlying idealism in

the poet’s philosophy, even though its roots lie in Earth or Nature.

Either he reconciles Meredith’s naturalistic view with his own

idealism, or the naturalism escapes him. Since he calls the writer

“the Emerson of English poets,” he evidently parallels Meredith’s

strong ethical bent, human aspiration, and wholesome optimism

with the American poet’s. His specific reference to “The Lark

Ascending” and “Woodnotes” indicates that assumption. He also

found a certain idealism which was congenial to his own principles

of literary criticism. Strengthening the conflict, Stedman was in the

vanguard of such scholars and critics belonging to the realistic

school of critical theory as Howells, James, Brander Matthews, and

H. H. Boyesen, who chose to ignore the British author for the most

part. It is unfortunate that Stedman left no criticism of Meredith’s

prose.

In 1879 Harper’s printed The Egoist. Only one review, that in

the New York Times,* has been located. Although it is very inco-

2 Edmund Clarence Stedman, Victorian Poets (Boston, 1875), p. 271.

3 Ibid,., p. 447.

4 New York Times, December 21, 1879, p. 4. First the reviewer states that Evan

Harrington was printed in 1859. He confuses it with The Ordeal of Richard Feverel.

1958]

Bailey — George Meredith’s Novels

275

herent, a certain truth is elicited from the idea that Evan Harring¬

ton is a preface to The Egoist in so far as both novels deal with

pretentiousness, although the former exposes it with more fun and

less malice than does the latter. The reviewer notices something

“molierish” in its touch, and finds that “the lesson the book imparts

is that egoism brings punishment.” Even though he concludes that

The Egoist is “disappointing and wearisome,” he discovers that

“elements of the truest high comedy are in this book.” Judging

from the reviewer’s criticism, one conjectures that he knew nothing

about Meredith, aside from the fact that he was the author of these

two novels. Such reviewing is not proof, but is suggestive, of the

ignorance among American critics and reviewers of this writer.

One is puzzled by the paucity of information on his works when

Swinburne, George Eliot, Leslie Stephen, and other English critics

had reviewed them favorably in leading English periodicals.5

The following year an article appeared in Appleton’s Journal by

H. Holbeach. Revealing a Darwinian influence, he concludes that

the new fiction will thrive in spite of scourgings by the clergy, be¬

cause great changes, he thinks, induced by a new intellectual out¬

look, will foster “the spread of scientific knowledge, the increase of

luxury, the far-reaching aesthetic revival. . . .”“ By referring to the

Prelude in The Egoist he illustrates that new fiction reflects a

scientific attitude. His article is significant because he was aware

of the impact of science on the intellectual and literary milieu,

and he recognized an ever-growing value of the novel as a vehicle

of interpreting changing social and cultural patterns.

In May of 1885 Harper Brothers published an American edition

of Diana of the Crossways, and shortly thereafter two American

reviews appeared. The former, in the New York Times J accuses

the book of dullness and condemns it for a “constant aristocratic

flavor which gives one an idea that Mr. Meredith is inclined toward

snobbishness.” A reviewer in the Literary World 8 admits that Diana

is “palpitating with life, overflowing with witty sayings, a center of

resplendent womanhood.”

Although American periodical and newspaper reviewers and lit¬

erary critics do not furnish a rich harvest of Meredithian criticism,

pirated editions were evidently becoming successful. George Munro

Next he says that the Harper edition carries the imprimateur of 1861. His comparison

of Meredith’s technique with that of Henry James is interesting-, because it is the first

such reference available that makes this comparison. He says : “If. ‘Evan Harrington’

could be very English at times with the beefiness which Trollope confesses to, it

showed a lightness of touch, an episodic character, which is only equaled today by

our own Mr. James.’’

6 See Vardis Fisher, George Meredith’s Literary Reputation, 1850-1885, Unpublished

Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Chicago, 1925. Mr. Fsher treats exclusively of Mere¬

dith’s literary reputation in England.

6 H. Holbeach, “New Fiction,’’ Appleton’s Journal (April 1880), XXIII, 345-351.

7 New York Times, July 6, 1885, p. 3.

8 Literary World, Boston (July 25, 1885), XVI, 261.

276 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and \ Letters [Vol. 47

published in February of 1885 without authorization the first

twenty-six chapters of Diana from the Fortnightly Review. It was

the first of many books by Meredith he was to pirate. His cheap

paperbacks evidently sold successfully; otherwise he would not have

bothered to publish them. Thus it seems that if American men of

letters and reviewers as well as American publishers were doing-

little or nothing to popularize Meredith, illegal publishers were,

and this method might have been one way that Meredith enlarged

his American reading public.

Between 1885 and 1887 Roberts Brothers9 published a complete

edition of ten volumes to date of Meredith’s works. Referring to

this edition, Meredith in 1886 writes : “Americans appear to have

received my work very generously.” In the same letter he praises

the United States :

Since their most noble closing of the Civil War, I have looked to them

as the hope of our civilization: and in reading Professor Jebb’s account

of Sophocles on the Harvard stage, I have seen that they have the sprit

to excel in classics and belles lettres. Therefore I am justly flattered by

their praise if I win it; their censure, if they deal it to me, I meditate on.1"

The first review to appear announces that “there is a cult of

Meredith,”11 though available published criticism does not sustain

this view. In 1886 four reviews credit Meredith with brilliant lan¬

guage, forceful character drawing, “coolness of touch,” and treat¬

ment of “people as if he was that audience that hears enacted the

drama of life.”12

Lack of available reviews and notices indicates that the novels

were not publicized individually as they came off the press. One

wonders if Roberts Brothers were slow or inefficient or both in their

advertising, despite one reference to a “Meredith cult.”

In 1887 the Literary World published an unsigned article which

reviews all of Meredith’s volumes. Seeming to disagree with pre¬

vious accounts of his popularity, this reviewer remarks that his

novels were strangely new to American readers.13 He interprets

9 In 1885 Roberts Brothers of Boston had started an authorized publication of a

complete edition of Meredith’s works to date. It was in collaboration with Chapman

and Hall of London. The Publisher’s Trade List Annual for 1889 lists the following:

The Ordeal of Richard Feverel, Evan Harrington, Harry Richmond, Diana of the

Crossways, Sandra Belloni, Vittoria, Beauchamp’s Career, The Egoist, The Shaving

of Shagpat and Farina, Rhoda Fleming, all uniform volumes, 12 mo. <f? $2.00. Popular-

edition, 16 mo. $1.50.

10 Letters, Ed. by W. M. Meredith, 2 vols. (New York, 1912), II, 388.

11 New York Times, April 19, 1886, p. 3.

12 New York Daily Tribune, May 16, 1886, p. 10. Critic (August 28, 1886), VI, 107.

New York Times, November 21, 1886, p. 12. New York Daily Tribune, October 24,

1886, p. 10.

u Literary World (April 30, 1887), XV11I. 137-138. The critic adds: “With all this

alacrity to take up with British cleverness, we do not seem to have opened our hearts

to one writer, who, for nearly thirty years, has been elaborating — the word is prop¬

erly used — from an immense mass of social raw material, his half score of volumes,

each as distinct in its whole as perfected marble, though as to the imperfections of

the details no two critics may agree.’’

1958]

Bailey — George Meredith's Novels

277

Meredith’s social criticism in terms of contrast between traditional

rational conventionality and new scientific realism. The novels, he

thinks, fill a gap between those by Eliot, Trackeray, and Dickens,

and those with a naturalistic slant.

In the same year a long review of Diana of the Crossways ap¬

peared in the New York Daily Tribune.1* Allying himself with lit¬

erary theorists of the traditional school, this reviewer condemns

Meredith for being “deficient in that sympathy with human weak¬

ness which can alone put a writer en rapport with his kind.” Diana’s

treasonable act offends his sense of Victorian decorum. In spite of

his apparent dislike and disapproval of Meredith, he discerns an

acuteness of observation and a solidity of judgment, shared only by

George Eliot, and he prophesies that Meredith will gain a steady

and surviving audience. Then he makes one new and valuable con¬

tribution to Meredithian criticism by perceiving that Meredith

adopts a technique of the Greek chorus for his own ends, even

though he accuses the novelist of employing this device too fre¬

quently, and thereby surcharging the moral.

Just as an increasing number of reviews appeared in 1887 and

the years following, so did the number of personal accounts in¬

crease. One of the most searching is an article by Flora L. Shaw,

published in 1887 in the New Princeton Review,15 in which she com¬

bines details about the author’s personality with a close, though

biased, analysis of his literary aims. Miss Shaw quotes long pas¬

sages from their conversations at his home in Box Hill to illustrate

his ideas on truth and virtue and his abhorrence of cynicism and

sentimentalism ; the same ideas which are so succinctly explained in

his letters16 and so hilariously presented in Evan Harrington. An

inconsistency exists in her criticism ; for while she supports whole¬

heartedly Meredith’s passion for reason, she also interprets his

satire in terms of affection. She misses the objectivity of his method.

Her position illustrates the dilemma of an era which tries to cling

to traditional idealism and at the same time to accept the dispas¬

sionate reason of scientific realism.

Not until 1887 was Meredith’s name mentioned in the Atlantic

Monthly,11 when a “contributor” criticizes him for giving his read¬

ers only a half truth by believing that reason can overcome

sentiment.

14 New York Daily Tribune , September IT, 1887, p. 10.

15 Flora L. Shaw, “George Meredith, New Princeton Review (March 1887), TTT,

220-228.

1,5 Meredith writes : “Against that cynicism I do protest. None of my writings can be

said to show a want of faith in humanity, or of sympathy with the weaker, or that I

do not read the right meaning of strength.” Letters, II, 388.

17 "A Word with Mr. George Meredith,” from the “Contributor’s Club,” Atlantic

Monthly (June 1887), DIX, 854-855.

278 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

After the publication of Roberts Brothers edition, an interest in

Meredith’s writings among college students is noticed. One student

who tried to come to grips with Meredith’s technique and philosophy

was George Pierce Baker,18 then an undergraduate at Harvard Col¬

lege. In a scholarly essay Mr. Baker traces classical and scientific

influences in Meredith’s novels. He finds “a trust in the guiding

power of reason and intellect as that of the old Greek philosophers.”

He observes that each character undergoes a conflict between rea¬

son and passion. The author’s role is that of moralist, not enter¬

tainer, for in “these life-histories . . . the particular man and his

fate are as nothing compared with the lesson in ethics which his

career illustrates. . . . His novels are all tales of mental and moral

growth . . . the evolution is viewed in all possible lights.” He adds

that “to read the stories and sayings of George Meredith is to come

upon a nineteenth century version of the doctrines of Socrates.”

But Mr. Baker also notices the impact of nineteenth century sci¬

ence in comparing Meredith’s methods with

experiments in biology and to say that in them George Meredith studies

the development of men and women in the struggle between passion and

intellect with much the patient enthusiasm of him who is watching the

growth into being of some life-germ. In the past too much attention has

been paid to striking dramatic episodes in the evolution, too little to the

entire set of circumstances which makes the change possible, and to the

ideas which the metamorphosis exemplifies.19

Not heredity or environment or individual will power, but “all the

mitigating circumstances of natural disposition, of training, of en¬

vironment, are given their proper share of responsibility” in the

shaping of character. Sin is “not palliated or made insidiously fas¬

cinating.” He interprets Meredith’s weak and sentimental char¬

acters as his method of translating into artistic terms his philosophy

of “blood, brain, and spirit,” and his regard for classical centrality

holds in check, Mr. Baker believes, his leanings toward naturalism.20

This essay is historically as well as intrinsically valuable for its

thorough and objective analysis of Meredith’s novels.

In the same year another essay, this one by the Reverend Julius H.

Ward,21 states the thesis that Meredith concentrates on man’s in¬

tellect to the exclusion of his spirit. He and Meredith fundamen¬

tally disagree over the participation of reason in shaping human

18 George P. Baker, "George Meredith,” Harvard Monthly (June 1887) IV, 138-146.

™Ibid., pp. 138-139.

20 Meredith himself illuminates his stand on this controversy in his Essay on Com¬

edy: “it is unwholesome for men and women to see themselves as they are, if they

are no better than they should be ; and they will not, when they have improved in

manners, care much to see themselves as they once were. That comes of realism in

the Comic art ; and it is not public caprice, but the consequence of a bettering state.

The same of an immoral may be said of realistic exhibitions of a vulgar society.”

Works, Memorial Ed., 27 Vols. (London, 1909-1910), XXIII, 9.

21 Christian Union (September 1, 1887), XXXVTI, 199.

1958]

Bailey — Georye Meredith’s Novels

279

destiny. The author’s relentless probing precludes a softness which

the Reverend Mr. Ward believes would have been truer to nature,

for he affirms that higher intuitions of men and women determine

human destiny in time of crisis. Whereas other critics have hinted

at it, he is the first one to associate Meredith squarely with the new

school of scientific thought.22 By taking this position he not only

identifies himself with the traditional idealistic critics but he also

adumbrates opinions of such humanists as Paul Elmer More, who

finds the same limitation in Meredith.23

George Parsons Lathrop published an historically important

critical analysis of Meredith’s works in the Atlantic Monthly. 24 He

labels The Ordeal of Richard Feverel “a sermon upon the folly of

bringing up a boy on theory,” he disposes of Evan Harrington with

a few pithy phrases, and considers The Egoist “Meredith’s worst

novel,” because his treatment of egoism is not only “fatiguing, but

. . . revolting.”

Mr. Lathrop was one of several noted American critics in the

latter part of the nineteenth century to articulate a realistic theory

of criticism upon a scientific rationale.25 He discounts the plausi¬

bility of romance, and like Howells and James, advocates a faithful

representation of the commonplace. He interprets nature in terms

of experience and believes that an author’s duty is to translate that

experience into art. Meredith’s method of implementing his purpose

“with strict truth of probability and nature” in Richard Feverel is

congenial to his own principles of realism, but despite this affinity,

he finds Meredith’s coldly objective method of dissecting egoism

“fatiguing.”

22 The Reverend Mr. Ward points out a critical limitation. Meredith’s triad is blood,

brain, and spirit, but since spirit comes last in the spiral evolution, Meredith has a

tendency to neglect it at the expense of the other two. In fact, one is often confused

trying to maintain his distinction between brain and spirit. Whereas the novels am¬

plify his theory, “The Woods of Westermain” epitomizes it :

Each of each in sequent birth

Blood and brain and spirit, three

(Say the deepest gnomes of Earth),

< Join for true felicity.

Are they parted, then expect

Someone sailing will be wrecked ;

Separate hunting are they sped,

Scan the morsel coveted.

Earth that Triad is : she hides

Joy from him who that divides ;

Showers it when the three are one

Glassing her in unison.

2:1 in a letter to Mrs. Janet Ross in 1861 Meredith says: “The truth is, my experi¬

ences are all mental . . . .” Letters, I, 23.

24 George Parsons Lathrop, “George Meredith,” Atlantic Monthly (February 1888),

LXI, 178-193.

23 See Latlirop’s “The Growth of the Novel,” Atlantic Monthly (June 1874), XXXIII,

684-697, and “The Novel and Its Future,” Ibid., (September 1874), XXXIV, 313-324.

280 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

It is regrettable that one of the most significant critics of this

period only casually refers to Meredith. In a letter dated August 23,

1888, James Russell Lowell26 wrote to Mrs. Leslie Stephen :

I haven’t been seriously at work on anything, but only entangled in the

brief intricacies of George Meredith, like the poet of the “Roumant of the

Rose,” and like him consoling my scratches with the assurance that there

was a consummate flower hidden somewhere among them, of which one

gets enchanting glimpses now and then.

Certainly Meredith’s turgid style should have been a subject for

Lowell’s satiric quips.

That William Dean Howells should choose to review Beauchamp’s

Career 27 in 1889 is understandable because of his continuous in¬

terest in social criticism. Despite “antiquated properties” of lords,

ladies, squires, landed estates, and “unhappy marriages,” all which

are unrealistic to Howells, he discovers that “a great, fresh, and

noble ideal of conduct evolves itself in the character of Beauchamp,

a valiant young aristocrat turned democrat. . . .” More than social

aspects hold his attention, however; his strong ethical turn of mind

directs him to seek a moral vision in the story. He admires the nar¬

rative for its “certain splendid massiveness of effect,” although he

omits any reference to Meredith’s technique. His fairness in pass¬

ing judgment enables him to see merits in Meredith’s works even

though he dislikes them and finds them “difficult to read.”

A reviewer in the Critic 28 contrasts Meredith with Howells ; the

former, he thinks, works with the laws of humanity, whereas the

latter treats of the laws of society. He adds that Howells discovers

comedy in the socially unconventional, but for Meredith it rests in

the stupidly conventional.

Tomkins McLaughlin20 published a review second in importance

to Howells’s review. Not only does he deduce that Meredith’s pur¬

pose is “to write with a sense of responsibility to aim at an accurate

psychology as morally obligatory, to satirize folly and to present

exemplars of intelligent culture, to appeal for approval to the in¬

tellect,” but also he successfully analyses Meredith’s doctrine of

“blood, brain, and spirit,” in terms of evolutionary theory that leads

from beast to soul. Man possesses a capacity to strive for the best.

Striving is the test.

Through 1889, as a result of Roberts Brothers edition, reviews

and criticisms of Meredith’s works increased. From them one may

deduce that his reading public was enlarging. In fact, one reviewer30

31 James Russell Rowell, Letters, Ed. by C. E. Norton, 2 Vols. (New York, 1893),

II, 258-359.

27 “Editor’s Study,” Harper’s Monthly (May 18S9), LXXVIII, 984.

28 Critic (June 1, 1889), XI, 267—268.

2) Tomkins McLaughlin, “George Meredith as a Theorist,” New Englander and Yale

Review (August 1889), LI, 81-95.

•m Curio ( January-February 1888), I, 265-267.

1 958]

Bailey — Georye Meredith's Novels

281

boasts of his popularity from “London to Chicago,’’ though this is

probably an exaggeration. Nevertheless, from an historical angle,

numerous minor articles and notices on Meredithian personalia and

a seeming Meredithian cult indicate a growing interest on the part

of the general reading public. Also, the critical essays are mile¬

stones in intellectual history because in general they reflect the two

streams in American critical theory already referred to.

In 1890 Meredith completed One of Our Conquerors , and after

its appearance serially from October, 1890, through May, 1891, in

Fortnightly Review, Roberts Brothers added it to their edition.

Divergent opinions were echoed here and abroad. Two reviews31

complain of its packed thought and regret that an enlarged reading-

public had not tempered Meredith’s style.

Following a new American edition of The Tragic Comedians,

with an Introduction by Clement Shorter, several reviewers32 agree

for a change that Meredith did a brilliant psychological study of the

tragedy of Helene von Donniges and Ferdinand Lassalle, and that

Meredith is a subtle observer of the human heart. They even admit

that this is one of Meredith’s most readable books.

Reviews that follow the publication of Lord Ormont and His

Aminta in 1894 oscillate between eulogy and acrimony, depending

not so much on a reviewer’s judgment of the novel as upon his par¬

ticular prejudice toward the author.33 One critic,34 however, con¬

trasts freedom of will shown in all Meredith’s novels to a natural¬

istic determinism found in Hardy’s. Characters in Lord Ormont

and His Aminta, he finds, are not sad, helpless, fated creatures they

are in Tess of the D’Urbervilles. Another critic35 queries whether

Meredith has “passed a sound, wholesome, calm, and enduring judg¬

ment upon human nature.” He objects to the ending on grounds

that it is an offense against the laws to which the greatest artists,

such as Shakespeare and Dante, are obedient.

Diverse reactions to the moral problem in Lord Ormont and His

Aminta, clearly manifest a dilemma which was caused by contem¬

porary fluctuating attitudes toward moral and social values. On the

whole, reviewers adhering to traditional values denounced what

naturalism they perceived with acrid words and irritated emotions,

while those who approved were generous in their praise.

a New York Daily Tribune, April 26, 1891, p. 4. Critic (July 11, 1891), XVI, 13-14.

32 Public Opinion (February 20, 1892), XII, 517. New York Daily Tribune, Feb¬

ruary 21, 1892, p. 14. Dial (April 1892), XII, 425. Harper’s Monthly (June 1892),

LXXXV, 155. Overland (October 1892), XX, 441-442.

a The more hostile reviews are found in New York Times, August 18, 1894, p. 3;

Critic (September 8, 1894), XXII, 153; New York World, October 14, 1891, p. 15. The

more favorable ones are in Public Opinion (August 23, 1894), XVII, 509—510; New

York Daily Tribune, October 7, 1894, p. 14; Outlook (September 15, 1895), U, 437;

Harper’s Monthly (May 1895), XC, 978, sup. 3.

:M New York Times, January 28, 1895, p. 4.

35 Atlantic Monthly (February 1895), LXXV, 267-268.

282 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters [Vol. 47

Meredith’s novel writing career closed in 1895 with the publica¬

tion of The Amazing Marriage, which, of all his novels, stimulated

the most reviews.36 Their general tone, however, is less controversial

than those of Lord Ormont and His Aminta. Critics for the Nation,

Critic, and Public Opinion 37 concur with a reviewer for the Chicago

Evening Post 38 that Meredith’s “wordy mist . . . cannot hide his

marvelous power, his deep knowledge of the human heart, and that

splendor of diction which gleams out here and there like a strong

sun from behind a heavy cloud.” In contrast William Morton

Payne’s article in the Dial 39 is representative of those who find

Meredith’s style an obstruction to his narrative. Regardless of the

“robust philosophy of his books, their utterly perverse manner must

exclude them from the vital literary interest of the great majority

of readers.”

From an examination of Meredithian criticism in the United

States through 1895, it seems evident that in literary trends sci¬

entific realism was impinging upon latent idealism. Critics of both

shades disagreed in their interpretation of Meredith, for frequently

those who used a scientific frame of reference accused him of ro¬

manticism, while those of the traditional school of critical theory,

using an ethico-aesthetic rationale, often charged him with a

naturalistic philosophy.

From an analysis of available criticism and a knowledge of some

of the critics, a rough pattern emerges, denoting that Meredith’s

first appeal was to a few isolated intellects, then to a self-styled

literary cult, and finally to an uncritical group.40 While the quantity

of reviews and notices increased, the quality deteriorated. Often re¬

viewers were superficial in their remarks either from carelessness

or from lack of understanding and appreciation of the author’s

aims and methods. A study of material available suggests a cul¬

tural lag among men of letters. For example, after collecting mate¬

rial for a study of the English novel, Sidney Lanier published The

English Novel and the Principles of Its Development in 1879, but he

does not mention Meredith’s novels, although by that date he had

88 From July 1895 through April 1896 fifteen reviews of The Amazing Marriage

have been located. Eight are in newspapers and seven in magazines.

37 Nation (December 12, 1895), LXI, 432—433. Critic (December 14, 1895), XXIV,

400. Public Opinion (January 9, 1896), XX, 56.

38 Chicago Evening Post, February 8, 1896, p. 14.

38 Dial (February 1, 1896), XX, 77.

10 The serial publication of several short stories in the Sunday editions of the New

York Sun in 1890 suggests a widening interest. Thomas B. Mosher’s unique limited

edition of Modern Love conveys an impression that an exclusive Meredithian cult might

have existed. A reviewer in the Boston Transcript, December 15, 1892, p. 6, makes an

enlightening statement regarding the rumor of Meredith’s popularity : “They say in

London nowadays that people who read George Meredith’s novels when they were

not popular, are developing a cult within a cult since the novels began to be read by

the multitude and are retiring into an admiration of his poetry where only the privi¬

leged few may enter behind the veil.”

1958]

Bailey — George Meredith’s Novels

288

already to his credit The Ordeal of Richard Feverel and The Egoist,

his best known works. James, Howells, and Lowell offered very lit¬

tle rewarding criticism. Except for Edmund Clarence Stedman, not

one outstanding American critic included his writings in a book of

literary criticism. A thorough and perspicacious evaluation of the

Meredithian canon by such literary giants as Paul Elmer More,

Stuart P. Sherman, W. C. Brownell, and Joseph Warren Beach

had to wait until the turn of the century.

CORNELL

ONIVEPSiTv

MAY 211959

LIBRARY